RENEWABLES 2023 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Renewables in Energy Supply

Solar Thermal Heating

Key Facts
Solar Thermal Heating

  • The global solar thermal market contracted 9.3% in 2022, due largely to a drop in China.
  • Sales grew at double-digit rates in several large markets including Italy (up 43%), France (29%), Greece (almost 17%), Germany and Poland (both 11%).
  • By the end of 2022, millions of residential, commercial and industrial clients in some 150 countries were benefiting from solar thermal heating systems.
  • Solar thermal continued to face fierce competition from solar PV as well as heat pumps and biomass boilers.
  • Although small-scale systems for water and space heating continued to lose market share in many countries, demand for large-scale projects increased.
  • The leading markets for solar thermal technology in district heating were China, which commissioned an estimated 25 systems, and Germany, which had a record year with 8 new plants.
  • More solar industrial heat plants (SHIP) began operation in 2022 than in any other year since surveys began in 2017, with at least 114 projects coming online. The Netherlands led with 38 systems, followed by China (17) and France (14).

The global solar heat market contracted 9.3% in 2022 to an estimated 22.8 GWth i , after an increase in 2021 that followed seven years of decline. 1 Sales grew at double-digit rates in several large solar thermal markets, including Italy (43%), France (29%), Greece (almost 17%), and Germany and Poland (both 11%); in addition, South Africa, the strongest market in Sub-Saharan Africa, reported an increase (9%) over 2021. 2 However, sales declined in other large markets including India (-21%), China (-12.3%), Spain (-12%) and Portugal (-11%), following strong growth in 2021. 3

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The solar thermal industry was challenged by supply chain issues, logistics disruptions and inflation, which pushed up costs. In some countries, manufacturers struggled to procure raw materials for the production of collectors and storage tanks, leading to longer delivery times and rising prices. 4 Despite higher fossil fuel prices, on the demand side a lack of awareness of solar thermal options and an imbalance in policies and utility incentives in many countries meant that solar thermal continued to face fierce market competition – from solar PV in particular, but also from heat pumps and biomass boilers, both of which offer stand-alone solutions for hot water and/or space heating. 5

Small-scale solar thermal systems and combi-systems (for water and space heating) continued to account for around 60% of annual installations, but in recent years they have lost market share across much of Europe and China. 6 Demand for large-scale projects, in contrast, is increasing, with several multi-megawatt plants under construction in 2022 for commercial and industrial clients, signalling a new era for big solar in those regions. 7 In some countries, interest also is rising in hybrid systems, particularly combined solar thermal and heat pump systems in district heating networks. 8

By year's end, millions of residential, commercial and industrial clients in around 150 countries were benefiting from solar thermal heating systems. 9 Cumulative global capacity in operation reached an estimated 542 GWth in 2022, up 3.3% from 523 GWth in 2021. 10 (See Figure 29.) Total global capacity of solar water collectors in operation at the end of 2022 was enough to provide around 442 TWh of heat annually, equivalent to the energy content of 260 million barrels of oil. 11

China remained the largest market for solar thermal systems of all types, accounting for around 73% of the cumulative world capacity, followed distantly by Türkiye, the United States, Germany and Brazil. 12 The top 20 countries for new additions remained largely the same as in 2021, led by China, Türkiye, Brazil, India and the United States. 13 (See Figure 30.) A significant addition was Lebanon, where installations rose more than four-fold in 2022 as the removal of subsidies drove up prices for fuel and electricity. 14

FIGURE 29.

Solar Water Heating Collectors Global Capacity, 2012-2022

 FIGURE 29.

Note: Data are for glazed and unglazed solar water collectors and do not include concentrating, air or hybrid collectors.

Source: IEA SHC. See endnote 10 for this section.

FIGURE 30.

Solar Water Heating Collector Additions, Top 20 Countries for Capacity Added, 2022

 FIGURE 30

Note: Additions represent gross capacity added and are rounded to nearest whole number. The additions for Mexico and Israel refer to 2021 (latest data available). For Morocco, the share of collector types was not available.

Source: See endnote 13 for this section.

Top Country Markets

After stabilising in 2021, China's solar thermal sales continued the downward slide that began in 2014, as the market was affected by pandemic-related restrictions and a resulting slowdown in new construction. 15 Even so, the country continued to account for the largest share of global annual sales, at nearly 67%. 16 China added an estimated 15.2 GWth (21.7 million square metres, m2) in 2022, down 12.3% from 2021, for a total of 396.2 GWth (566 million m2). 17 By 2022, China's energy savings from the use of solar thermal technologies exceeded an estimated 1 billion tonnes of standard coal. 18

Several multi-megawatt plants were under construction in 2022 for commercial and industrial clients, signalling a new era for big solar thermal in much of Europe and China.

Sales of vacuum tube collectors in China fell 11%, to 11.2 GWth, accounting for nearly three-fourths of total sales, while flat plate sales declined 19%, to 4 GWth. 19 Most new installations were in the engineering market ii (83%), with the rest in the retail market. 20 Water heating remained the primary use for China's solar thermal systems, but the market for space heating continued to expand, up 9.5% in 2022. 21 China's industry moved further towards modularisation and increased intelligence of systems, while price competition became increasingly fierce. 22

Despite industry expectations of double-digit growth, Brazil's market contracted 2.1% relative to 2021, when sales grew 28% to a record high. 23 The decline was due to economic challenges, concern about investment security in advance of state and federal elections, and expected government support policies for solar thermal that did not materialise in 2022. 24 Brazil added a total of 1.26 GWth (nearly 1.8 million m2), with systems for swimming pools (unglazed collectors) accounting for nearly 52% of the newly installed collector area, or 0.6 GWth (920,463 m2). 25 Although the residential sector (73%) remained the largest market, solar heating in hotels has increased rapidly, with investments generally paying off in 2-4 years. 26 Brazil's total operating capacity grew 8.5% in 2022, to 9.1 GWth. 27

Following strong growth in 2021, India's market declined 21% in 2022. 28 The country added an estimated 1.06 GWth (1.52 million m2) for a total of 13.9 GWth (19.8 million m2), close to meeting the Solar Mission target for 2022. 29 Sales of vacuum tube collectors dropped 19%, while flat plate collector sales fell 50%, to their lowest share (5%) in eight years. 30 The decline was due largely to falling solar PV prices plus a net metering scheme and a newly enacted (2021) federal subsidy for solar PV, which encouraged customers to install solar PV over solar thermal. 31 The state of Karnataka continued to lead with a market share above 75%, due to rising electric rates and a solar building obligation in place since 2007. 32

As in India, most solar thermal systems in Türkiye are residential water heaters; however, systems also have been installed in hotels, hospitals and other facilities, placing the country second after China for the number of large systems in operation. 33 The payback periods for solar thermal along the Mediterranean coast are relatively short due to high irradiation and a good match between hot water demand and the high solar-yield season. 34 Türkiye also is home to the world's largest solar thermal cooling system, inaugurated in 2022. 35 In total, Türkiye added an estimated 1.3 GWth in 2022, down more than 4% from 2020, for a cumulative operating capacity of 19.1 GWth. 36 The market decline was due to a mix of high inflation, uncertainty about upcoming elections, and competition from fossil gas, which is distributed to an increasing number of rural areas. 37

The United States ranked fifth for sales in 2022, adding 617 megawatts-thermal ( MWth), bringing its total solar thermal capacity to 18.2 GWth. 38 As in Brazil and Australia, new pool heating systems drove the US market. 39 The United States remained the second largest market for unglazed collectors (587 MWth) after Brazil, followed by Australia (245 MWth), where unglazed collectors represented over 71% of 2022 additions. 40

Unlike in Türkiye, Brazil, and India, where solar water heaters are cost-effective compared to electricity-driven solutions, in the United States and most European countries financial incentives are still needed to reduce upfront investment costs, due to higher equipment and labour costs and in some cases lower solar resources. 41

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Market strength varied across Europe, with continued expansion in several countries (including Italy, France, Greece and Poland) and surprising growth in Germany, but declines elsewhere (including in Austria and Switzerland). 42 Most solar thermal systems in Europe are on rooftops and are used for residential water heating. 43 The top five European countries for new additions in 2022 were Germany, Greece, Italy, Poland and Spain. 44

In Germany, the world's sixth largest solar thermal market, annual sales were up 11%, with an estimated 91,000 solar thermal systems added, totalling 496 MWth (709,000 m2). 45 This was Germany's third year of market stability or growth following several years of contraction. 46 The increase came despite supply bottlenecks and weakened demand in construction and renovation caused by economic uncertainty, and was due to rising fuel prices and continued national funding for residential installations. 47 By the end of 2022, Germany reached an estimated 15.5 GWth (22.1 million m2) of capacity in operation. 48

The second largest European market, Greece, added a record 293 MWth (419,000 m2), up 17% over 2021, for a total of 3.8 GWth (5.4 million m2) in operation. 49 The Greek market was driven mainly by high electricity prices and a desire to shift away from fossil fuels. 50 Greece's solar thermal industry is growing rapidly, with annual production of collector area rising from 540,000 m2 in 2014 to 1.2 million m2 in 2021. 51 Domestic sales were up 33% over this period while exports tripled, accounting for 70% of 2021 production. 52 Production increased a further 19.4% in 2022, and exports rose 21%. 53

Italy's market expanded 43% in 2022, to an estimated 225 MWth. 54 This followed a record 83% increase in 2021, the first positive year after more than a decade of contraction. 55 The increases were driven mainly by the Superbonusi, a 110% tax reduction for energy efficiency measures that include replacing fossil boilers with renewable heating systems. 56

In Poland, additions increased 11% over 2021, to 147 MWth (210,000 m2), with flat plate collectors accounting for more than 99% iii of the market. 57 Increased public investment combined with rising fossil fuel prices and the threat of fuel supply disruption drove the market. 58 At year's end, Poland had an estimated 2.4 GWth (3.4 million m2) in operation. 59

As in 2021, Spain was the only top-five European market where additions fell during the year. 60 The 12% decline in 2022 followed a 24% decline over the period 2017-2021, with an estimated 102 MWth (145,500 m2) added in 2022. 61 Solar thermal has struggled to compete with solar PV, which is widely publicised and is the focus of most solar installers, making it difficult to find installers for solar thermal systems. 62 This is despite significant government incentives, such as grants for industry and for up to 60% of some residential installations. 63

District Heating

Although most solar thermal capacity installed globally continued to be for water heating in individual buildings, the use of solar thermal technology in district heating continued to expand in 2022. The leading market was China, followed by Germany. 64 Additional plants, or extensions of existing ones, were commissioned in Austria, Denmark and Italy (where two new plants came online). 65 By year's end, 325 large-scale iv solar thermal district heating systems with a total capacity of nearly 1.8 GWth (2.56 million m2) were documented as operating around the world, many of them with seasonal storage capacity. 66

China reported v commissioning a total of 119.7 MWth (171,068 m2) in an estimated 25 solar district heating systems. 67 By the end of 2022, the country had around 67 solar district heating systems totalling 400 MWth. 68 Work continued on the 79.8 MWth (114,000 m2) plant for a tourism resort in Handan Bay; the facility, due to open in 2023, will use parabolic trough collectors to supply water and space heating for the hotel and an indoor pool, as well as ice and snow for an indoor ski slope. 69

Germany had a record year, with eight plants (totalling 30.8 MWth or 44,000 m2) starting operations in 2022, compared with nine plants (33 MWth) in all of Europe during 2021. 70 Large systems for district heating remain a small segment (6%) of the German market but saw the strongest growth in 2022, driven by solar thermal's potential to achieve climate protection goals while making energy supply less susceptible to crises and stabilising district heating prices. 71

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Germany's largest new plants were a 13.1 MWth (18,732 m2) system in Greifswald, on the Baltic Sea, and a 5.2 MWth (9,118 m2) system in the town of Lemgo, which is combined with fossil gas-driven combined heat and power plants and a heat pump. 72 By the end of 2022, 48 solar district heating plants totalling 99.8 MWth (142,500 m2) were operating in Germany, with a further 9 plants (21.8 MWth) under construction or in advanced planning, and around 50 plants (200 MWth) in preparation. 73 A growing number of projects have been initiated by local energy co-operatives vi . 74

Only one solar district heating system began operating in Denmark during 2022, a 1.9 MWth (2,664 m2) project in the city of Hørsholm, following one new plant in 2021. 75 Despite limited additions in 2021 and 2022, Denmark remained the world leader in solar district heating, with 123 systems totalling more than 1.1 GWth (1.6 million m2) operating at the end of 2022. 76 Despite the spike in electricity prices, which helped highlight solar thermal's potential to provide low-cost heat, there were no signs that Denmark's solar thermal market would return to its previous scale under existing policies. 77 The country has prioritised renewable electricity (particularly wind energy), with policy support driving a huge shift from solar thermal to heat pumps in district heating starting in 2020. 78 However, public funding expanded in 2022 to include solar thermal. 79

Total solar collector sales in Austria fell 15% in 2022, despite a significant extension to a large system for district heating in Graz. 80 However, high energy prices and a government campaign to renovate buildings and move away from oil and fossil gas sparked new interest in solar thermal for district heating. 81 In early 2023, 27 feasibility studies were under way for nearly 1 million m2 of solar collector area. 82

Elsewhere in Europe, rising concerns about energy security, heightened by the Russian Federation's war on Ukraine, overtook climate change and air quality concerns as the primary motivator for new systems in the Western Balkan countries. 83 The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) extended its solar district heating support to additional cities in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Serbia in 2022. 84 The European Commission, Germany's KfW bank and the EBRD, together with a local contribution, will fund a 40.6 MWth collector field with absorption heat pumps and a 408,000 m3 seasonal storage facility in Kosovo's capital, Pristina. 85

According to one estimate, solar thermal provides 3 times the energy yield per area of solar PV and up to 43 times that of biomass or ethanol for heat. 86 Despite rising concerns about heat costs and energy security in many countries, obstacles remain, including a lack of awareness about the benefits of solar thermal in district heating, competition with heat pumps, challenges finding suitable sites for large installations close to urban areas with heat networks, and lengthy permitting processes, which are causing bottlenecks across Europe. 87

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Lack of awareness about the benefits of solar thermal systems and competition with solar PV and heat pumps are slowing their adoption.

Industrial Heat

Solar thermal technologies provide emission-free heat for numerous industrial processes vii requiring low (below 150°C) or medium (150-400°C) temperature heat. 88 Industrial companies around the world are turning to renewable heat solutions, including solar heat technologies, to meet social and environmental goals and to achieve energy price stability viii . 89

More solar industrial heat plants (SHIPs) began operation in 2022 than in any other year since surveys began in 2017. 90 At least 114 SHIP projects with a total capacity of 30 MWth came online during the year, up from 78 completed projects in 2021, although the total capacity installed was lower (down from 36 MWth). 91 By the end of 2022, at least 1,089 SHIP installations, totalling more than 856 MWth, were supplying process heat to factories worldwide. 92 Food and beverage industries had the largest number of systems, and the mining sector had the largest share (59%) of total operating capacity. 93

Nine different technology types ix for SHIP were installed in 2022. 94 Most systems in operation use flat plate collectors, followed by parabolic trough collectors and vacuum tubes. 95 At least in Europe, the market is expanding for parabolic trough, linear Fresnel and concentrating dish collectors, which can provide temperatures above 100°C. 96 As in other sectors, there is a growing interest in combining solar thermal technologies with heat pumps. 97

The list of countries with the highest numbers of newly commissioned SHIP projects x changed again in 2022, with the Netherlands taking the lead over China and Mexico with 38 systems, followed by China (17), France (14), Mexico (13) and Germany (9). 98 The leading markets for new capacity installed xi were the Netherlands (7.3 MWth), China (7.2 MWth) the United States (5.4 MWth) and Spain (2.8 MWth). 99

In China, completed projects used a variety of technologies for applications in dairies, textiles, vehicle manufacturing, petroleum refining, and other industries, with the largest facility having 3,570 m2 of gross collector area. 100 Outside of China, the number of annual installations nearly doubled from 55 systems in 2020 (totalling 22 MWth) to 97 in 2022 (23 MWth). 101 The Netherlands and France (1.8 MWth) led in Europe due to a large number of subsidised agricultural systems. 102 After several years with little activity, the United States brought online four new systems, including its first solar steam boiler. 103

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In most major markets, demand for SHIP systems is driven by policy incentives. 104 Despite high fossil fuel prices in 2022, SHIP project developers faced significant obstacles to concluding contracts. 105 Even where SHIP is cost-competitive without public support, the lack of awareness about the benefits of solar heat has led to limited progress. 106 Of the 114 systems completed in 2022, only 20 did not receive government funding. 107 However, in Mexico rising fossil fuel costs and interest in reducing carbon emissions have boosted interest in SHIP projects without government subsidies. 108 Latin America's first purchase agreement xii for solar-generated steam was signed in Mexico in 2022. 109

Such heat purchase agreements are increasingly common and are moving SHIP into new markets. 110 Projects under development in France (dairy), Spain (brewery) and Belgium (chemical producer) all were realised under heat purchase agreements, which minimise the market risk for investors xiii . 111

In recent years, several suppliers have left the SHIP sector while new ones have entered, with the share of those offering concentrating solar thermal solutions increasing from 31% in 2017 to 41% in 2022. 112 SHIP remains a challenging sector because awareness of the options remains low, clients typically want short payback periods, and projects require significant lead time xiv . 113 GlassPoint (United States), which built the world's largest SHIP plant in Oman (33 MWth) in 2019, was liquidated in 2020 but restarted operations in 2022, committing to develop a 1.5 GWth solar steam plant xv for a mining company in Saudi Arabia. 114

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Footnotes

i Global data are for solar thermal water collectors (glazed and unglazed) only.

ii Chinese statistics characterise systems as either standardised small residential solar water heaters or “engineered” systems, which include larger systems used in, for example, industry, agriculture, public institutions and residential housing projects.

iii The Superbonus entered into force in 2021, and in 2022 it was extended through 2025 (with rates decreasing over time).

iv This represents a marked shift away from vacuum tube systems in Poland, where vacuum tube collectors account for 15% of total operating capacity. See endnote 57 for this section.

v Solar district heating systems are considered to be large-scale if they are more than 350 kilowatts-thermal (500 m2). Globally, there were 571 large-scale solar thermal systems in 2022, with installed capacity totalling 2,148 MWth (3.1 million m2), including those for heating large residential, commercial and public buildings. See endnote 66 for this section.

vi China's national statistics do not distinguish between collector fields heating individual buildings and those heating multiple buildings via district networks, so some of these systems might be providing space heating for individual buildings rather than for district heating networks. See endnote 67 for this section.

vii In September, Germany introduced a federal subsidy for efficient heating networks that includes large-scale solar thermal projects and is available to municipalities, energy suppliers and energy communities. See endnote 74 for this section.

viii Industries include chemical (boiling, distilling), food and beverage (drying, boiling, pasteurising, sterilising), machinery (cleaning, drying), mining (copper electrolytic refining, mineral drying, nitrate melting), textile (washing, bleaching, dying) and wood (e.g., steaming, compressing, drying).

ix Significant energy price volatility has increased interest in solar thermal solutions; however, those same price fluctuations have slowed decision processes as industrial companies are uncertain about at what level it is most attractive to lock in a price. See endnote 89 for this section.

x These included flat plate (39%), vacuum tube (24%), parabolic trough (12%), air collectors (11%), high-temperature flat plate (6%), linear Fresnel (4%), PVT (3%), unglazed polymer (1%) and concentrating dish (0.4%). Concentrating collectors were mostly parabolic trough, but included three new linear Fresnel systems in Spain and some concentrating dish capacity (making up 0.4% of total SHIP installations). See endnote 94 for this section.

xi In 2021, the rankings for number of systems installed were China first, followed by Mexico, the Netherlands and Austria. Note that China's numbers are likely higher than reported and vary from year to year due to fluctuations in reporting. See endnote 98 for this section.

xii In 2021, the top countries for capacity installed were France, China and Türkiye. See endnote 99 for this section.

xiii Under the agreement, the client is charged per tonne of steam monthly, saving money compared to the previous fossil-based system.

xiv However, even in countries where SHIP systems are competitive with fossil fuels, government incentives remain critical for increasing awareness and encouraging clients to sign heat purchase contracts. See endnote 111 for this section.

xv In addition to project contracting, planning and construction, industry decisions have been slowed by as much as 6-12 months because many potential consumers want to apply for government subsidies, even when solar thermal systems are offered at a competitive price. See endnote 113 for this section.

xvi The plant will replace fossil gas in the refining of bauxite into alumina, and is expected to reduce the company's carbon footprint by an estimated 50%. See endnote 114 for this section.

  1. Based on data from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends 2022, Detailed Market Figures 2021, 2023 Edition”, International Energy Agency (IEA) Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (SHC), 2023, pp. 6, 58, 60, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and from M. Spörk-Dür, AEE – Institute for Sustainable Technologies (AEE INTEC), personal communication with Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), May 2023. 1
  2. Additions on the country level were provided to REN21 during January-May 2023 from the following sources: France, Italy and South Africa from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1; Greece from C. Travasaros, Greek Solar Industry Association (EBHE); Germany from A. Liesen, Bundesverband Solarwirtschaft e.V. (BSW Solar); Poland from J. Starościk, Association of Manufacturers and Importers of Heating Appliances (SPIUG). 2
  3. Additions on the country level were provided to REN21 during January-May 2023 from the following sources: China from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1; India from J. Malaviya, Solar Thermal Federation of India (STFI); Portugal from P. Dias, Solar Heat Europe; Spain from P. Polo, Asociación de la Industria Solar Térmica (ASIT). 3
  4. J.P. Meyer, “Survey of German solar collector industry: ‘daily struggle to procure materials'”, Solar Thermal World, August 4, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/survey-of-german-solar-collector-industry-daily-struggle-to-procure-materials. At least in Germany, the situation was particularly challenging for manufacturers of vacuum tube collectors, most of which purchase tubes from China, from idem.4
  5. E. Engelniederhammer, “Gas-free industrial heat with PVT collectors and heat pumps”, Solar Thermal World, December 12, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/gas-free-industrial-heat-with-pvt-collectors-and-heat-pumps; Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1; P. Dias, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, March 17, 2023; Epp, “High interest in PV and heat pumps has reduced collector sales in India”, Solar Thermal World, March 14, 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/high-interest-in-pv-and-heat-pumps-has-reduced-collector-sales-in-india. Small-scale solar water heating systems and solar combi-systems (provide hot water and space heating) for single- and multi-family houses, apartment buildings, hotels and public buildings in large parts of Europe and China have lost market share to solar PV systems and heat pumps in recent years, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. Utility incentives are used in Portugal, for example, where electric utilities are promoting the installation of heat pumps, from Dias, op. cit. this note; in India's commercial and hospitality markets, heat pumps, which can provide constant hot water, were the technology of choice, from Epp, op. cit. this note; in Australia, heat pumps are challenging solar thermal for both the residential hot water market and for pool heating, from D. Ferrari, Exemplary Energy, personal communication with REN21, May 5, 2023. For additional examples, see text and sources throughout this section.5
  6. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, p. 15. Note that China's small retail market declined in 2022, but the space heating market increased.6
  7. B. Epp, solrico, personal communication with REN21, May 10, 2023. For example, see B. Epp, “Construction imminent on 77 MW solar heat plant for leisure resort”, Solar Thermal World, April 30, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/construction-imminent-on-77-mw-solar-heat-plant-for-leisure-resort; B. Epp, “37 MW solar district heating plant in the Netherlands with outstanding features”,Solar Thermal World, November 11, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/37-mw-solar-district-heating-plant-in-the-netherlands-with-outstanding-features; B. Epp, “Welcome to a new year and another chance for solar heat to get big”, Solar Thermal World, January 17, 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/welcome-to-a-new-year-and-another-chance-for-solar-heat-to-get-big. 7
  8. See text and sources throughout this section.8
  9. Solarthermalworld.org reported on solar thermal sales activities in more than 150 countries worldwide during 2008-2022, based on search of website, accessed April 7, 2023.9
  10. Based on 542 GWth at the end of 2022, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and on 523 GWth at end-2021, from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. Figure 29 from the following: global solar thermal capacity for glazed and unglazed water collectors is based on historical data from W. Weiss and M. Spörk-Dür, “Solar Heat Worldwide, Global Market Development and Trends, Detailed Market Figures”, multiple editions, IEA SHC, https://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide, and on REN21, “Renewables Global Status Report 2022”, data for Figure 40, p. 138, https://www.ren21.net/reports/global-status-report; data for 2022 are from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and are based on the latest market data from the following solar thermal markets – Australia, Austria, Brazil, China, Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Greece, India, Italy, Mexico, State of Palestine, Poland, South Africa, Spain, Türkiye and the United States – which represented 96% of the cumulative installed capacity in operation in 2021, from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. Note that the difference between annually installed capacity and net annual additions for most countries is the capacity subtracted each year to account for the assumed collector lifetime (generally 25 years), all from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1.10
  11. Figure of 442 TWh from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, pp. 4, 84. Equivalence of 442 TWh and 260 million barrels of oil equivalent from Kyle's Converter, https://www.kylesconverter.com/energy,-work,-and-heat/terawatt-hours-to-barrels-of-oil-equivalent. 11
  12. Figure of 73% for China based on data from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1; top five countries and ranking based on data from Ibid. and on additions and cumulative data for top 20 countries from sources cited throughout this section.12
  13. Top 20 countries and Figure 30 based on the latest market data available for gross additions of glazed and unglazed water collectors (not including concentrating, photovoltaic-thermal and air collectors), at the time of publication, for countries that together represent around 97% of the world total. Data from original country sources include gross national additions and were provided to REN21 during February-May 2023 from the following sources: Australia from D. Ferrari, Sustainability Victoria; Austria, China, Italy, Mexico and South Africa from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1; Brazil from D. Johann, Associação Brasileira de Energia Solar Térmica (ABRASOL); Cyprus from P. Kastanias, Cyprus Union of Solar Thermal Industrialists (EBHEK); France from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and based on data from Uniclima, “Dossier de Presse: Bilan 2022 et perspectives 2023 des industries thermiques, aérauliques et frigorifiques”, February 2, 2023, p. 9, and from Agence de la transition écologique (ADEME); Germany from BSW Solar and Federation of German Heating Industry (BDH), cited in J.P. Meyer, “The German solar thermal market only grew slightly in the energy crisis year 2022”, February 14, 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/the-german-solar-thermal-market-only-grew-slightly-in-the-energy-crisis-year-2022, and from A. Liesen, BSW Solar; Greece from C. Travasaros, EBHE; India from J. Malaviya, STFI; Israel data are for 2021 and from E. Shilton, Elsol; A. Fadlallah, Lebanese Center for Energy Conservation; for Morocco a 13% decrease in additions in 2022 was estimated based on the import value in million USD for the months January to September 2022, from Trademap, https://www.trademap.org, and provided by Epp, solrico (the share of vacuum tube and flat plate collectors for Morocco was not available); Poland from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and from J. Starościk, SPIUG; Portugal from P. Dias, Solar Heat Europe; Spain from P. Polo, ASIT; Türkiye from K. Ulke, Bural Solar, and from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, Tables 11 and 12; United States from B. Heavner, California Solar & Storage Association (CALSSA), personal communication with REN21, May 2023. For Mexico, data are 2021 installations because 2022 statistics were not available at time of publication.13
  14. Installations in Lebanon were up 385% in 2022 based on data for 2021 additions from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, Table 13, and on a total of 86.3 MWth (123,329.8 m2) added during 2022, from A. Fadlallah, Lebanese Center for Energy Conservation, personal communication with REN21, May 12, 2023. The Lebanese government removed subsidies for fuel and electricity, causing prices to rise and triggering a drastic increase in solar thermal system installations relative to previous years. Almost all systems are used for domestic hot water in single-family homes, from Fadlallah, op. cit. this note. Data are not yet available for Tunisia, which was included among the top 20 for 2021 in REN21, op. cit. note 10, Figure 31; however, it is likely that this country was not among the top 20 installers in 2022.14
  15. Sun Realm Think Tank, “‘2022 China Solar Thermal Industry Operation Status Report' officially released”, March 16, 2023, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/1jXYS-8iMpstP2-3ddSerw (using Google Translate); H. Cheng, Shandong SunVision Management Consulting, personal communication with B. Epp, solrico, May 2023.15
  16. Based on data from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. 16
  17. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1; Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, May 16, 2023. Installation data are slightly higher (using a different methodology), but still estimated market decline of 12.3%, from Sun Realm Think Tank, op. cit. note 15. Total installed capacity reflects an improvement in the quality of most brands of household solar heating systems, with lifespans exceeding 15 years and, in some cases, lasting for more than 20 years, from idem.17
  18. Sun Realm Think Tank, op. cit. note 15. Energy savings amount to an estimated 1,001.66 million tonnes of standard coal, or the equivalent of 27,846 GWh of electricity, from idem. 18
  19. Based on data from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. Vacuum tube sales in 2022 totalled 17.968 million m2 and flat plate collector sales were 5.757 million m2, with vacuum tubes accounting for 75.7% of total sales, based on data from Sun Realm Think Tank, op. cit. note 15.19
  20. Sun Realm Think Tank, op. cit. note 15. The shares are based on a sample survey of enterprises in several provinces and key regions of China, from idem.20
  21. Ibid. 21
  22. Ibid.22
  23. ABRASOL, “Pesquisa de produçao e Vendas de Sistemas de Aquecimento Solar 2023, Base 2022”, April 2023, p. 2, https://abrasol.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Pesquisa-de-Producao-e-Vendas-de-2023-ano-base-2022.pdf; E. Engelniederhammer, “Hotel sector is important sales channel for solar industry in Brazil”, Solar Thermal World, April 21, 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/hotel-sector-is-important-sales-channel-for-solar-industry-in-brazil. Sales rose 28% in 2021, driven by the energy crisis and rising electric rates, which encouraged people to invest in their homes and, as of early 2022, the expectation was that Brazil's market would see an increase of 30% for the year, from ABRASOL, “Produção de aquecedor solar de água cresce 28% em 2021”, Boletim 24, February 2022, https://abrasol.org.br/boletim-i-fevereiro-i-no24-2022-2 (using Google Translate). 23
  24. ABRASOL, “Pesquisa de produçao…”, op. cit. note 23, p. 6.24
  25. D. Johann, ABRASOL, personal communication with REN21, March 2023. Brazil added 920,463 m2 of unglazed collector area, 821,248 m2 of glazed collectors and 38,124 m2 of vacuum tube collectors (bringing total additions to 1,779,835 m2), from idem. The residential sector remained the primary market (73%), followed by the commercial sector (19%); the industrial sector represented 6% and social projects only 2%, from ABRASOL, “Pesquisa de produçao…”, op. cit. note 23, p. 2. 25
  26. The residential sector remained the primary market (73%), followed by the commercial sector (19%); the industrial sector represented 6% and social projects only 2%, from ABRASOL, “Pesquisa de produçao…”, op. cit. note 23, p. 2. Use in hotels and 2-4 year payback, from L.A. dos Santos Pinto, ABRASOL and Solis, cited in Engelniederhammer, op. cit. note 23. 26
  27. Figure of 8.5% from ABRASOL, “Pesquisa de produçao…”, op. cit. note 23, p. 4; cumulative capacity based on 9,066 MWth from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1.27
  28. Based on data from J. Malaviya, Malaviya Solar Energy Consultancy, personal communication with REN21, March 2023.28
  29. Additions in 2022 based on data from J. Malaviya, Malaviya Solar Energy Consultancy, cited in Epp, op. cit. note 5; year-end totals (water collectors only) based on 19,827,079 m2 (15,246,893 m2 of vacuum tube collector area and 4,580,186 m2 of flat plate collector area), from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. The third phase of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission required 20 million m2 of solar thermal collector area to be in operation at the end of 2022, from B. Epp, “India close to the Solar Mission target of 20 million m2 collector area”, Solar Thermal World, February 22, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/india-close-to-the-solar-mission-target-of-20-million-m2.29
  30. Based on data from Malaviya, cited in Epp, op. cit. note 5. A little over 75,000 m2 of flat plate collector area was installed during 2022, from idem.30
  31. Epp, op. cit. note 5.31
  32. Ibid.32
  33. Importance of small-scale from Y. Akay, Solimpeks Solar Corp, personal communication with B. Epp, solrico, February 2022; second after China for large systems from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. Türkiye had 18 large-scale systems (>350 kWth; 500 m2) with a total installed capacity of 14.2 MWth, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. India's main solar thermal application continued to be thermosiphon systems for single-family houses, from Epp, op. cit. note 5.33
  34. Akay, op. cit. note 33.34
  35. The parabolic trough system has a cooling capacity of 3.5 MWth and is operating at a packaging factory in Izmir, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. See also B. Epp, “Solar steam to cool production halls in southern Turkey”, Solar Thermal World, July 5, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/solar-steam-to-cool-production-halls-in-southern-turkey. 35
  36. Estimated additions in 2022 from K. Ulke, Bural Solar, personal communication with REN21, May 16, 2023; estimated market decline based on 2021 additions from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, Tables 11 and 12; end-2022 capacity from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, and from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. 36
  37. Ulke, op. cit. note 36.37
  38. Additions based on data from Heavner, op. cit. note 13 (US new additions of vacuum tube collectors were not available); estimated total capacity from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. 38
  39. Brazil from information and sources in this section; Australia from Ferrari, op. cit. note 5; United States from Heavner, op. cit. note 13.39
  40. US unglazed based on 839,122 m2 of collector area installed in 2022, accounting for nearly 95% of additions, based on data from Heavner, op. cit. note 13; Australia based on an estimated 350,000 m2 of unglazed collector area installed in 2022, accounting for 71.5% of the year's installations, from Ferrari, op. cit. note 5.40
  41. B. Epp, solrico, personal communication with REN21, April 2022 and May 2023. For Italy, for example, see R. Battisti, “Conto Termico: Good incentive but with room for improvement”, Solar Thermal World, April 25, 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/conto-termico-good-incentive-but-with-room-for-improvement. 41
  42. Based on preliminary data from L. Mico, Solar Heat Europe / European Solar Thermal Industry Federation, personal communication with REN21, May 5, 2023. The preliminary data show a slight increase in Spain relative to 2021.42
  43. Based on P. Dias, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with B. Epp, solrico, April 2022. In Germany, more than half of new installations in 2022 were water heating systems on rooftops, with single family houses accounting for the largest share of demand, based on data from A. Liesen, BSW Solar, personal communication with REN21, February 28 and March 2, 2023; estimate by D. Lange, cited in Meyer, op. cit. note 13; and data from German industry associations BSW Solar and BDH, cited in Meyer, op. cit. note 13. In Greece, the market is mostly hot water systems for single-family homes, from C. Travasaros, EBHE, personal communication with REN21, April 11, 2023. In Italy, as of 2020, 76% of solar thermal heat was used by residential customers, from Battisti, op. cit. note 41, and 90% of new collector area in 2021 was to provide hot water, from R. Battisti, “Superbonus has pushed solar heat in Italy”, Solar Thermal World, March 9, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/superbonus-has-pushed-solar-heat-in-italy. In Poland, the majority of systems installed in 2022 were for domestic hot water, with 64% for single-family and 20% for multi-family residences, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. In Spain, most 2022 installations were flat plate collectors (almost 94%) and used by households, from P. Polo, ASIT, personal communication with REN21, March 3, 2023. Flat plate collectors were followed in Spain by vacuum tube collectors (4.8%) and unglazed collectors for swimming pool heating (1.4 %); multi-family houses accounted for almost half of demand (45%), with single family houses accounting for 35%, all from Polo, op. cit. this note.43
  44. Based on data and sources throughout this section.44
  45. Data from German industry associations BSW Solar and BDH, cited in Meyer, op. cit. note 13, and from Liesen, op. cit. note 43. The 2022 additions were up from 448 MWth in 2021, from Meyer, op. cit. note 13.45
  46. Data from German industry associations BSW Solar and BDH, cited in Meyer, op. cit. note 13. Germany's annual market held even in 2021 relative to 2020, in which the market expanded 26% over 2019, from idem.46
  47. D. Lange, cited in Meyer, op. cit. note 13; Liesen, op. cit. note 43. The government continued to fund residential installations through the Federal Office for Economic Affairs and Export Control (BAFA), from idem. Note that growth was due primarily to the energy crisis because subsidies enacted in 2021 did not have much effect on market in 2022, from Lange, op. cit. this note. Germany saw nearly 77,000 applications for federal funding that included a solar thermal system in 2022, up 75% over 2021; the greatest increase in applications submitted was for heat pumps (up 429%), from Meyer, op. cit. note 13. 47
  48. Total capacity in operation at end-2022, from Liesen, op. cit. note 43. 48
  49. C. Travasaros, op. cit. note 43, January 29, 2023.49
  50. C. Travasaros, op. cit. note 43, April 11, 2023.50
  51. E. Engelniederhammer, “Greek factories: a new collector every 72 seconds”, Solar Thermal World, May 31, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/greek-factories-a-new-collector-every-72-seconds. 51
  52. Ibid. 52
  53. Travasaros, op. cit. note 43, January 29, 2023.53
  54. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1; Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1.54
  55. Battisti, op. cit. note 43. 55
  56. Battisti, op. cit. note 41; R. Battisti, “National Round Table discusses market development and policies in Italy”, Solar Thermal World, November 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/national-round-table-discusses-market-development-and-policies-in-italy; Battisti, op. cit. note 43. The market in 2021 also was driven by construction, with 2021 being a record year for the building industry, from idem. The Superbonus was extended in 2022 to be in effect until the end of 2025, with rates decreasing over time, from ANIMA Confindustria Meccanica Varia, “Guida al nuovo Superbonus”, https://www.anima.it/media/news/superbonus/superbonus-anima.kl, accessed May 8, 2023 (using Google Translate). However, the Superbonus does not cover solar thermal district heating systems, from Battisti, op. cit. this note. 56
  57. J. Starościk, SPIUG, personal communication with REN21, February 1, 2023; Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. The 210,000 m2 of solar water collectors included 208,500 m2 of glazed collectors and 1,500 m2 of vacuum tube collectors, from idem, both sources.57
  58. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1.58
  59. Ibid. Of the total in operation at the end of 2022, 85% were flat plate and the remainder vacuum tube collectors, from idem.59
  60. Confirmed by P. Polo, ASIT, personal communication with REN21, April 2023.60
  61. Figure of 12% and estimated 2022 additions, from Polo, op. cit. note 43; decline for period 2017-2021, from P. Polo, ASIT, cited in A.D. Rosell, “More than EUR 1 billion of incentives available in Spain”, Solar Thermal World, October 12, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/more-than-eur-1-billion-of-incentives-available-in-spain. Flat plate collectors were followed by vacuum tube collectors (4.8%) and unglazed collectors for swimming pool heating (1.4 %); multi-family houses accounted for almost half of demand (45%), with single family houses accounting for 35%, all from Polo, op. cit. note 43. 61
  62. Polo, op. cit. note 43.62
  63. Ibid. Spain has five subsidy schemes that support solar thermal (and other renewable technologies and heat pumps), and that were implemented between late 2021 and the end of 2022, with funds available through 2023, from Rosell, op. cit. note 61.63
  64. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1.64
  65. Austria extended a large-scale system in Graz, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1; Denmark from D. Trier, PlanEnergi, personal communication with REN21, February 27, 2023; Italy commissioned two solar thermal plants, in the district heating networks of Turin and Verona, from Battisti, op. cit. note 41. 65
  66. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, p. 17. Year-end total installations of concentrating collector technologies (linear Fresnel, parabolic trough and dish) were reported by aperture area and converted into solar thermal capacity using the internationally accepted convention for stationary collectors,
    1 million m2 = 0.7 GWth.66
  67. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. The figure of 25 is based on an average reported size of 4.86 MWth (6,945 m2) per facility, from idem. In 2021, China commissioned around 20 large-scale solar heating systems in total, including solar thermal district heating systems; by the end of 2022, 571 large-scale solar thermal systems (>350 kWth, 500 m²) were in operation (totalling 2,148 MWth; 3.1 million m2), including district heating systems and those for individual buildings. The total installed capacity of these systems equaled 2,148 MWth, corresponding to 3.1 million m² collector area, from idem, pp. 4, 17. Note that China's national statistics do not distinguish between the two different uses of large-scale systems, from Sun Realm Think Tank, “2021 Solar Heating Market Yearbook”, April 7, 2022, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/o66GAR8KQMK7I7DB_yapPQ.67
  68. Based on data in Figure 9, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1.68
  69. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. See also B. Epp, “Concentrating solar heat capacity quadruples in 2022”, Solar Thermal World, August 29, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/concentrating-solar-heat-capacity-quadruples-in-2022. 69
  70. Record year based on data from Steinbeis Research Institute Solites, cited in Solar Wärme Netze, “2022 Rekordjahr für solare Wärmenetze in Deutschland”, March 28, 2023, https://www.solare-waermenetze.de/2023/03/28/solare-waermenetze-in-betrieb-2023 (using Google Translate); data for Germany in 2022 from Meyer, op. cit. note 13, and from Liesen, op. cit. note 43; all Europe in 2021 from Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, April 2022.70
  71. Data from Liesen, op. cit. note 43; and from German industry associations BSW Solar and BDH, cited in Meyer, op. cit. note 13. Drivers from H. Huther, district heating association AGFW, cited in Solar Wärme Netze, op. cit. note 70. A growing number of district heating systems in Germany and increased interest among home owners has led to a rapid increase in demand for vacuum tube collectors in recent years, rising from 15% of newly installed collector area in 2020 to 26% in 2022 (130 MWth, 185,000 m2). Around 130 MWth (185,000 m2) of vacuum tube collectors were added in 2022 and nearly 367 MWth (524,000 m2) of flat plate collectors, from Liesen, op. cit. note 43. 71
  72. Liesen, op. cit. note 43; E. Augsten, “Will smart district heating bring solar thermal back into focus in Germany?” Solar Thermal World, October 11, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/will-smart-district-heating-bring-solar-thermal-back-into-focus-in-germany. Other systems that came into operation in 2022 were in Lemgo (9,118 m2), Aschersleben (3,717 m2), Schönwald (2,860 m2), Horb am Neckar (2,416 m2), Markt Erlbach (2,400 m2), and Dettenhausen and Sigmaringen (both 2,312 m2), from Liesen, op. cit. note 43. Lemgo also from Augsten, op. cit. this note.72
  73. M. Berberich, Solites, cited in B. Epp, “Solar district heating solutions providing higher temperatures”, Solar Thermal World, December 4, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/solar-district-heating-solutions-providing-higher-temperatures. Capacity of further 9 plants under construction or in advanced planning is based on gross collector area of 31,200 m2, and of the 50 plants in preparation is based on gross collector area of 286,400 m2, and sourced from idem. Note that the total collector area for district heating in Germany grew by 30% relative to 2021, from Solites, cited in Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. 73
  74. F. Stier, “Successful operator models for solar district heating in Germany”, Solar Thermal World, January 5, 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/operator-models-for-solar-district-heating; F. Stier, “From LECs to TECs – citizen energy in focus”, Solar Thermal World, May 28, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/from-lecs-to-tecs-citizen-energy-in-focus; policy information from Augsten, op. cit. note 72; B. Epp, “Fund of EUR 3 billion for decarbonising German district heating”, Solar Thermal World, August 30, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/fund-of-eur-3-billion-for-decarbonising-german-district-heating. 74
  75. Trier, op. cit. note 65, February 27, 2023. The plant that began operations in 2021 was a 5.6 MWth (8,013 m2) project in Præstø, from idem.75
  76. World leader in terms of number and installed area of systems and figure of 123, from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. Capacity in operation, from Trier, op. cit. note 65, February 2023. By the end of 2022, Denmark had installed a total of 1,128 MWth (1,611,065 m2); accounting for decommissioning, a total of 1,125 MWth (1,607,015 m2) was in operation; in addition, another three projects totalling 8.3 MWth (11,910 m2) were under construction with plans to come online in 2023, from Trier, op. cit. note 65, February 2023.76
  77. Trier, op. cit. note 65, March 2, 2023. 77
  78. A.D. Rosell, “Heat pumps: Competition or complement in district heating?” Solar Thermal World, September 13, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/heat-pumps-competition-or-complement-in-district-heating.78
  79. Ibid.79
  80. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, p. 13. The Graz extension increased the collector area by 2,134 m2, bringing the total to 6,134 m2, from idem. Note that another estimate puts the decline in 2022 at 25%, from F. Stier, “Feasibility studies for large solar heat plants totalling almost 1 million m2 underway”, Solar Thermal World, April 6, 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/feasibility-studies-for-large-solar-heat-plants-totalling-almost-1-million-m2-underway. 80
  81. Stier, op. cit. note 80. 81
  82. Ibid. The studies were support by the national Climate and Energy Fund, and the plants are to supply heat to energy suppliers and industrial companies, from idem.82
  83. B. Bogdanovic, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, cited in B. Epp, “EUR 65 million provided for solar district heating in Kosovo”, Solar Thermal World, July 7, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/eur-65-million-provided-for-solar-district-heating-in-kosovo. 83
  84. Epp, op. cit. note 83. Note that two solar thermal district heating plants were planned for Serbia as of early 2023. The feasibility study for a plant in the city of Pancevo (24.5 MWth/35,000 m2 of collector area) was completed, and a plant in the range of 45-136 MWth was planned for Novi Sad, all from Weiss and
    Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1.84
  85. B. Epp, “Big Solar in Kosovo replaces coal-based electric heating”, Solar Thermal World, January 25, 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/big-solar-in-kosovo-replaces-coal-based-electric-heating; Epp, op. cit. note 83. Planned funds amount to EUR 80 million (USD 85 million); the project will replace a coal-fired heat and power plant, and the heat pumps and storage should enable the network to reach high solar shares, from Epp, op. cit. this note.85
  86. Fraunhofer ISE, PlanEnergi and Chalmers University, cited in “Solar Thermal Shows Highest Energy Yield Per Square Metre”, Solar Thermal World, July 31, 2017, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/solar-thermal-shows-highest-energy-yield-square-metre. Another sources says up to four times solar PV and 50 times biomass, from Augsten, op. cit. note 72.86
  87. Challenges competing from Augsten, op. cit. note 72; lack of awareness from, for example, Stier, op. cit. note 80, and from B. Epp, “Solar district heating solutions providing higher temperatures”, Solar Thermal World, December 4, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/solar-district-heating-solutions-providing-higher-temperatures; permitting processes and suitable sites from F. Stier, “Access to land is one of the key bottlenecks for rolling out renewables”, Solar Thermal World, November 22, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/access-to-land-is-one-of-the-key-bottlenecks-for-rolling-out-renewables, and from B. Epp, “Fund of EUR 3 billion for decarbonising German district heating“, Solar Thermal World, August 30, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/fund-of-eur-3-billion-for-decarbonising-german-district-heating; bottlenecks also from M. Berberich, Solites, cited Epp, “Solar district heating solutions...”, op. cit. this note. 87
  88. Temperature ranges from Solar Payback, “Suppliers of Turnkey Solar Process Heat Systems”, https://www.solar-payback.com/suppliers, accessed 31 January 2023.88
  89. J. Byström, Absolicon Solar Collector, personal communication with B. Epp, solrico, February 2022; B. Epp, “Concentrating solar heat capacity quadruples in 2022”, Solar Thermal World, August 29, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/concentrating-solar-heat-capacity-quadruples-in-2022 (updated in November 2022); energy price stability and volatility from S. Papa, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, May 2, 2023.89
  90. Data assessed by a survey among the companies listed in Solar Payback, op. cit. note 88, and cited in B. Epp, “High level of dynamism on the SHIP world market in 2022”, Solar Thermal World, March 27, 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/high-level-of-dynamism-on-the-ship-world-market-in-2022. 90
  91. Ibid. Capacity was calculated by Epp using the factor 0.7 kW/m2 for all collector types. Figure of 78 in 2021 from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. 91
  92. Epp, op. cit. note 90. Capacity was calculated by Epp using the factor 0.7 kW/m2 for all collector types. 92
  93. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1.93
  94. Epp, op. cit. note 90. The nine types include flat plate, which accounted for 39% of newly installed collector area, followed by vacuum tube (24%), parabolic trough (12%), air collectors (11%), high temperature flat plate (6%), linear Fresnel (4%), photovoltaic-thermal (3%), unglazed polymer (1%) and concentrating dish (0.4%); concentrating collectors represented a combined 16% in nine projects; the substantial share of air collectors was due mainly to generous funding in Austria, Germany and Spain, all from idem. 94
  95. Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. Parabolic trough collectors account for the highest installed area, but due primarily to the
    330 MWth Miraah plant in Oman, which was commissioned in 2017, from idem. 95
  96. Epp, op. cit. note 89.96
  97. See, for example, “Two concentrating solar industrial heat plants in operation in Barcelona”, Solar Thermal World, June 19, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/two-concentrating-solar-industrial-heat-plants-in-operation-in-barcelona. A linear Fresnel collector field for Givaudan, a Spanish company that produces flavours and fragrances, includes hybrid heat pumps (with electric and thermal compressors), from idem. 97
  98. Data assessed by a survey among the companies listed in Solar Payback, op. cit. note 88, and cited in Epp, op. cit. note 90. Leading markets for number of systems installed in 2022 are based on data assessed by a survey among the companies listed on the SHIP Supplier World Map in March/April 2022, from Solar Payback, “SHIP Supplier Map of Turnkey Solar Process Heat Systems”, April 2022, https://www.solar-payback.com/suppliers. China possibly under-reported from Epp, op. cit. note 90, and from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1. The China Academy of Building Research reported that, in 2021 alone, a total of 359 SHIP systems (256,000 m2) were added; because detailed data are not available, the systems are not included in data from Weiss and Spörk-Dür, op. cit. note 1, p. 26.98
  99. Epp, op. cit. note 90; B. Epp, “Mood on the SHIP market: High interest but slow decision making”, Solar Thermal World, March 28, 2023, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/mood-on-the-ship-market-high-interest-but-slow-decision-making. 99
  100. Solar Thermal Plants Database, http://ship-plants.info/solar-thermal-plants, accessed April 13, 2023. 100
  101. Data assessed by a survey among the companies listed in Solar Payback, op. cit. note 88, and cited in Epp, op. cit. note 90.101
  102. Ibid. A key driver in the Netherlands is a national support scheme for solar thermal systems up to 200 m2, with a targeted natural gas phase-out also playing a role, from Epp, op. cit. note 99.102
  103. Four new systems from Epp, op. cit. note 90. The country's first solar steam boiler (170 °C) a 2.3 MWth (4,000 m2) parabolic trough plant for pasteurisation at an almond processing facility, meets 100% of the factory's demand during the daytime, from B. Epp, “2.3 MW solar steam boiler for almond pasteurization in California”, Solar Thermal World, March 3, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/2-3-mw-solar-steam-boiler-for-almond-pasteurization-in-california. 103
  104. Epp, op. cit. note 89.104
  105. Epp, op. cit. note 99. 105
  106. A.D. Rosell, “Heat purchase agreements on the rise in Spain”, Solar Thermal World, August 10, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/heat-purchase-agreements-on-the-rise-in-spain. 106
  107. Epp, op. cit. note 99.107
  108. Fossil fuel costs from A.D. Rosell, “Zero CAPEX solar heat for Mexican industry”, Solar Thermal World, March 18, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/zero-capex-solar-heat-for-mexican-industry; carbon emissions from Epp, op. cit. note 99. The relative decline in the number of systems completed in Mexico in 2022 was due to implementation delays stemming from supply chain issues and delays in payments by clients. A total of 13 projects were completed in 2022, compared with 18 projects in 2021 and 16 in 2020, all from Epp, idem. 108
  109. Rosell, op. cit. note 108. 109
  110. See, for example: B. Epp, “Welcome to a new year…”, op. cit.
    note 7; Rosell, op. cit. note 108; Rosell, op. cit. note 106.110
  111. Epp, “Welcome to a new year…”, op. cit. note 7. Internal decarbonisation targets also have been important factors, from idem. Even where SHIP systems are very competitive with fossil fuels, such as in southern Spain, the lack of awareness about the benefits of solar heat remains a challenge. One company in southern Spain offers heat for EUR 15-20 per MWh, which compares to gas at EUR 80-90 per MWh, from Rosell, op. cit. note 106.111
  112. B. Epp, “Structural changes in solar industrial heat supply industry”, Solar Thermal World, July 6, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/structural-changes-in-solar-industrial-heat-supply-industry. A survey of developers showed 25 companies reporting at least one project completed in 2022, up from 19 in 2021, from Epp, op. cit. note 90.112
  113. Epp, op. cit. note 112. Applying for government subsidies slowing rollout of projects, from S. Papa and P. Dias, Solar Heat Europe, personal communication with REN21, May 2023. 113
  114. B. Epp, “New Glasspoint announces first 1.5 GW parabolic trough field”, Solar Thermal World, June 10, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/new-glasspoint-announces-first-1-5-gw-parabolic-trough-field; GlassPoint, “MA'ADEN and GlassPoint sign a Memorandum of Understanding (“MOU”) to develop the world's largest solar process steam plant”, June 2, 2022, https://www.glasspoint.com/maaden-press-release. The plant is the Ma'aden facility in Ras al Khair, and the SHIP project will be a parabolic trough field, from Epp, op. cit. this note.114