RENEWABLES 2023 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Renewables in Energy Demand

Buildings in Focus

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Electricity met 35% of energy needs in buildings in 2021

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75% of final energy consumed in buildings is used for space heating and hot water

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Around 15% of the energy used in the world's buildings comes from modern renewables

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Renewable electricity use in buildings grew from 6% to 10% between 2010 and 2020

Around 25 million households worldwide have distributed (rooftop) solar PV

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Module Overview

Energy use in buildings accounted for around 30% of global final energy consumption in 2021, or around 132 exajoules (EJ). 1 As such, buildings contribute greatly to greenhouse gas emissions. Burning fossil fuels directly i for heat in buildings – including fossil gas in boilers, and oil and coal in furnaces – generated 8% of energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in 2021. 2 Meanwhile, indirectly producing the electricity and heat used to provide hot water and thermal comfort, and to power appliances and other devices in buildings, contributed 19% of emissions. 3 Together, these direct and indirect emissions grew 2% between 2019 and 2021. 4 Energy use in buildings also results in local air pollution, with the residential sector releasing more than a third of all emissions of particulate matter 2.5. 5

The use of renewable electricity in buildings is provided mainly through the power grid, but a growing number of buildings are powered using on-site systems, including rooftop solar photovoltaics (PV). Renewable heat for space and water heating and for cooking can be provided by on-site renewable energy systems such as solar thermal or by district energy networks or renewable electricity.

In 2020, renewables provided around 15.5% of the energy used in buildings.

Around 75% of the final energy consumed in buildings, and the associated emissions, are related to space and water heating. 6 The remaining 25% is electricity used to power appliances, lighting and other electricity-based services (excluding heating and cooling). 7 In 2021, the demand for space cooling increased 6.5% over 2020 levels, representing the largest growth in demand among end-uses. 8 Electricity use grew from 30% of the total energy use in buildings in 2011 to 35% in 2021. 9

Modern renewables pro-vided around 15.5% of the energy used in the world's buildings in 2020, up from 11.1% in 2010. 10 (See Figure 3) However, the share of renewables in buildings has grown more slowly than the renewable energy share overall. For example, the share of renewables in total electricity generation worldwide increased at an annual rate of 0.8% between 2010 and 2021 (rising from 19.5% to 28.2%), yet the share of renewables used in buildings increased only 0.4% annually. 11

FIGURE 3.

Renewable Share of Total Final Energy Consumption in Buildings, 2010, 2019 and 2020

 FIGURE 3.

Source: See endnote 10 for this module.

Energy consumption in buildings varies greatly around the world, including among the top ten energy-consuming countries. 12 (See Figure 4) In 2021, energy consumption in buildings rebounded above 2019 levels, following a drop in 2020 related to COVID-19 restrictions. 13 The countries with the highest renewable shares in buildings in 2021 were Brazil (where bioenergy is used for heating and cooking, and hydropower supplies large shares of electricity) and Canada (which relies heavily on electricity for heating and also has a high share of hydropower). 14 France, Italy and Germany also had above-average renewable shares in buildings, due mainly to reliance on biomass for heat and, to a lesser extent, on (renewable) electricity. 15 The lowest shares of renewables in buildings (less than 5% each) in the top ten consuming countries were in India, the Russian Federation and the Republic of Korea. 16

FIGURE 4.

Energy Consumption in Buildings by Major Country/Region, 2020

 FIGURE 4.

Source: IEA. See endnote 12 for this module.

Not all buildings or occupants have reliable access to energy. As of 2020, around 733 million people worldwide still lacked access to electricity, mainly in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. 17 Meanwhile, around 2.4 billion people were without access to clean fuels or modern cooking technologies. 18 To provide heat or cook meals, many households in developing and emerging countries continue to burn wood, charcoal or processed oil in simple, inefficient devices, contributing to indoor air pollution. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and the recent rise in energy prices, the number of people without access to energy has likely increased, leading residents in countries such as Brazil to resort to fuelwood instead of cleaner-burning alternatives for heating and cooking. 19

The top ten countries represent 67% of the global energy consumption in buildings.

In general, increasing the uptake of renewables for heating and cooling applications in buildings is more challenging than deploying renewables for electricity. 20 In 2021, fossil fuels contributed nearly two-thirds of the energy used to heat buildings, a share only slightly lower than in 2011. 21 (See Figure 5) A key barrier to the expansion of renewables has been the rise in the direct use of fossil gas for heating, which grew 17% from 2011 to 2021, due largely to its affordability and to a supply boom in the United States; by 2021, fossil gas contributed more than 40% of the total energy used to heat buildings globally. 22

The direct use of modern bioenergy to heat buildings – for example, through solid biomass pellets or briquettes, or gaseous fuels such as biogas and biomethane – is the largest end-use of renewables in buildings. Heat from bioenergy also can be produced centrally – such as at a combined heat-and-power plant – and distributed through a district heating network. The use of bioenergy for heating remained relatively stable during 2011-2021, although it was expected to increase in 2022 because of a fossil gas shortfall. 23 Modern bioenergy accounts for slightly less than half (42%) of the total energy consumption for heating and cooling that is derived from modern renewable sources. 24

Electricity is supplying a growing share of heat in the world's buildings, estimated at 14% of total heating needs in 2021. 25 As renewables contribute a larger share of the world's electricity overall, the contribution of renewable electric heating has risen in turn. When electricity is used to power heat pumps (for either heating or cooling), these devices harness ambient energy – typically from the outside air, but also from ground and water sources. Global use of ambient energy from heat pumps grew 26% between 2011 and 2021, providing around 4% of heating in buildings in 2021. 26

Solar and geothermal heat supply a small but rising share of buildings' heating needs. Overall, district heating meets 7% of heating needs in buildings, with renewables contributing a growing share of district heat. 27 Total heat consumption from district systems increased 12% between 2011 and 2021, while the renewable share of heat in district systems grew 68%. 28

Improving the energy efficiency of building envelopes can help renewables meet a higher share of heating loads. More rapid progress can be made if each unit of heat from renewable energy does not need to directly replace the same unit of heat from fossil fuels. Despite efforts to improve efficiency, energy demand in buildings has continued to rise – up 4% in 2021 following the pandemic-related slowdown, and up 2% overall between 2019 and 2021. 29

FIGURE 5.

Energy Consumption for Heating in Buildings, by Source, 2011 and 2021

 FIGURE 5.

Source: See endnote 21 for this module.

Investment in energy efficiency ii grew 15% in 2021 to USD 211 billion, suggesting that consumers may be turning their attention towards reducing energy demand. 30 Governments have sought to legislate improved efficiency as well. (p See Investment section.) By 2021, more than 80% of the final energy use from air conditioners occurred in countries that had adopted minimum energy performance standards, up from two-thirds in 2010. 31

As more households and businesses turned to renewables in 2022, a key driver was favourable economics. High fossil fuel prices, spurred in part by the Russian invasion of Ukraine (See Snapshot: Europe), made technologies such as rooftop solar PV and heat pumps more cost effective. 32 In 2022, record demand for renewables saved the European Union (EU) billions of euros in fossil gas imports that likely would have driven household energy prices even higher. 33 The overall declines in the costs of solar and wind power – notwithstanding slight increases in 2022 due to higher commodity prices – have further driven investment in renewable power plants (now the least-cost option in many countries) and in household renewable energy solutions. 34

Government policy also was a key driver of renewables in buildings in 2022. Government targets and regulation, as well as growing policy support to reduce energy costs, have bolstered consumer interest in renewables, particularly distributed solar PV. 35 Concerns about climate change and local air pollution have similarly encouraged consumers to adopt renewable technologies.

Spurred by these drivers, more countries have sought to increase the uptake of renewables in heating and cooling for buildings. In 2021, Chile and the United Kingdom released national heating strategies, and in 2022 Ireland released a national heat study targeting a net zero heating sector and laying out the options available to reach it. 36 The Netherlands also announced plans to phase out fossil gas from its heating supply. 37 In an effort to include equity considerations in policy design, some measures seek to ensure that low-income households benefit the most from revised heating policies and avoid bearing the cost burden, particularly during times of high energy prices. 38

Footnotes

i This module focuses on the direct use of energy in building operations, excluding energy used in the building construction industry and in the power and heat sector that supplies energy to buildings.

ii Because most energy efficiency investments in buildings are components of larger projects, they are difficult to extract from the overall project cost. Energy efficiency investments lead to a decrease in energy use compared to a baseline and are thereby incremental in nature. A lack of clear definitions, standards and benchmarks for assessing the energy efficiency performance of buildings makes tracking these investments challenging. See endnote 30 for this module.

  1. International Energy Agency (IEA), “World Energy Balances 2020: Extended Energy Balances,” August 2022, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-balances, all rights reserved, as modified by the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21).1
  2. Ibid.2
  3. Ibid.3
  4. Ibid.4
  5. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), “Decarbonising Buildings in Cities and Regions,” June 2022, https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regional-development/decarbonising-buildings-in-cities-and-regions_a48ce566-en.5
  6. IEA, op. cit. note 1.6
  7. Ibid. 7
  8. IEA, “Buildings – Analysis,” September 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/buildings.8
  9. Ibid.9
  10. Figure 3 from IEA, op. cit. note 1.10
  11. Ibid.11
  12. Figure 4 from Ibid.12
  13. IEA, op. cit. note 1.13
  14. Ibid.14
  15. Ibid.15
  16. Ibid.16
  17. IEA et al., “Tracking SDG 7: The Energy Progress Report 2022,” 2022, https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/data/files/download-documents/sdg7-report2022-full_report.pdf; L. Cozzi et al., “For the First Time in Decades, the Number of People Without Access to Electricity Is Set to Increase in 2022 – Analysis,” IEA, November 3, 2022, https://www.iea.org/commentaries/for-the-first-time-in-decades-the-number-of-people-without-access-to-electricity-is-set-to-increase-in-2022.17
  18. IEA et al., op. cit. note 17.18
  19. Cozzi et al., op. cit. note 17; Empresa de Pesquisa Energética, “Brazilian Energy Balance – Year 2021,” 2022, https://www.epe.gov.br/sites-pt/publicacoes-dados-abertos/publicacoes/PublicacoesArquivos/publicacao-675/topico-638/BEN2022.pdf. 19
  20. See Box 2 in “Global Overview” in REN21, “Renewables 2022 Global Status Report,” 2022, www.ren21.net/gsr-2022.20
  21. Figure 5 from IEA, “Heating – Analysis,” 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/heating.21
  22. IEA, op. cit. note 1.22
  23. IEA, “Renewables 2022 – Analysis,” 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022.23
  24. IEA, op. cit. note 1.24
  25. IEA, op. cit. note 21.25
  26. IEA, “Heat Pumps – Analysis,” 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/heat-pumps; IEA, op. cit. note 1.26
  27. IEA, op. cit. note 1. 27
  28. IEA, op. cit. note 1; IEA, op. cit. note 21. 28
  29. IEA, “Energy Efficiency 2022 – Analysis,” 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2022.29
  30. IEA, op. cit. note 1; B. Naran, R. Padmanabhi and P. Rosane, “Tracking Incremental Energy Efficiency Investments in Certified Green Buildings,” Climate Policy Initiative, December 16, 2021, https://www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/incremental-investments-in-energy-efficiency-in-green-buildings.30
  31. Ibid.31
  32. J. Psaropoulos, “Is Ukraine War Speeding Europe's Transition to Renewable Energy?” Al Jazeera, November 6, 2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/11/6/is-ukraine-war-speeding-europes-transition-to-renewable-energy; IEA, “Executive Director Rebuts Three Myths About Today's Global Energy Crisis,” September 7, 2022, https://www.iea.org/news/executive-director-rebuts-three-myths-about-today-s-global-energy-crisis. Snapshot: Europe based on the following sources: Eurostat, “Energy Balance Visualisation Tool,” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/infographs/energy_balances/enbal.html, accessed November 14, 2022; IEA, “A 10-Point Plan to Reduce the European Union's Reliance on Russian Natural Gas – Analysis,” March 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/a-10-point-plan-to-reduce-the-european-unions-reliance-on-russian-natural-gas; G. Zachmann, G. Sgaravatti and B. McWilliams, “European Natural Gas Imports,” Bruegel, https://www.bruegel.org/dataset/european-natural-gas-imports, accessed November 14, 2022; European Commission, “REPowerEU: Joint European Action for More Affordable, Secure and Sustainable Energy,” May 18, 2022, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:fc930f14-d7ae-11ec-a95f-01aa75ed71a1.0001.02/DOC_1&format=PDF; B. Claeys, J. Rosenow and M. Anderson, “Is REPowerEU the Right Energy Policy Recipe to Move Away from Russian Gas?” Euractiv, June 27, 2022, https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy/opinion/is-repowereu-the-right-energy-policy-recipe-to-move-away-from-russian-gas; Odyssee-Mure, “EU Heating Energy | Heating Energy Consumption by Energy Source,” https://www.odyssee-mure.eu/publications/efficiency-by-sector/households/heating-energy-consumption-by-energy-sources.html, accessed November 14, 2022; D. Gibb et al., “Turning Off the Gas: Stronger and Coherent EU Policy to Accelerate the Fossil Gas Phaseout,” Regulatory Assistance Project, October 18, 2022, https://www.raponline.org/knowledge-center/turning-off-gas-stronger-coherent-eu-policy-accelerate-fossil-gas-phaseout; Buildings Performance Institute of Europe, “EPBD Recast: New Provisions Need Sharpening to Hit Climate Targets,” January 20, 2022, https://www.bpie.eu/publication/epbd-recast-new-provisions-need-sharpening-to-hit-climate-targets.32
  33. Ember, “EU's Record Growth in Wind and Solar Avoids €11bn in Gas Costs During War,” October 18, 2022, https://ember-climate.org/press-releases/eus-record-growth-in-wind-and-solar-avoids-e11bn-in-gas-costs-during-war.33
  34. IEA, op. cit. note 23; BloombergNEF, “Energy Transition Factbook 2022,” September 2022, https://assets.bbhub.io/professional/sites/24/BloombergNEF-CEM-2022-Factbook.pdf.34
  35. IEA, op. cit. note 23.35
  36. Bnamericas, “Ministry of Energy Launches National Heat and Cold Strategy,” June 24, 2021, https://www.bnamericas.com/en/news/ministry-of-energy-launches-national-heat-and-cold-strategy; Government of the UK, “Heat and Buildings Strategy,” October 29, 2021, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/heat-and-buildings-strategy; Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, “National Heat Study,” https://www.seai.ie/data-and-insights/national-heat-study, accessed October 29, 2022.36
  37. N. Kurmayer, “Netherlands to Ban Fossil Heating from 2026, Make Heat Pumps Mandatory,” Euractiv, May 17, 2022, https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy-environment/news/netherlands-to-ban-fossil-heating-by-2026-make-heat-pumps-mandatory.37
  38. L. Sunderland and D. Gibb, “Taking the Burn Out of Heating for Low-Income Households,” Regulatory Assistance Project, December 1, 2022, https://www.raponline.org/knowledge-center/taking-burn-out-of-heating-low-income-households.38
  39. D. Gibb, S. Thomas and J. Rosenow, “Metrics Matter: Efficient Renewable Heating and Cooling in the Renewable Energy Directive,” Regulatory Assistance Project, September 6, 2022, https://www.raponline.org/knowledge-center/metrics-matter-efficient-renewable-heating-cooling-renewable-energy-directive.39
  40. European Parliament, “Renewable Energy Directive – Amendments Adopted in Sept 2022,” September 14, 2022, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2022-0317_EN.pdf.40
  41. R. Lowes et al., “A Policy Toolkit for Global Mass Heat Pump Deployment,” Regulatory Assistance Project, November 14,
    2022, https://www.raponline.org/knowledge-center/policy-toolkit-global-mass-heat-pump-deployment. 41
  42. Chinese Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, “14th Five-Year' Building Energy Efficiency and Green Building Development Plan,” 2021, www.mohurd.gov.cn/gongkai/fdzdgknr/zfhcxjsbwj/202203/20220311_765109.html.42
  43. IEA, “World Energy Outlook 2022,” October 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022.43
  44. REN21 Policy Database. See Reference Table R1 in the GSR 2023 Data Pack, www.ren21.net/gsr2023-data-pack.44
  45. G. De Clercq, “France Ends Gas Heaters Subsidies, Boosts Heat Pumps in Bid to Cut Russia Reliance,” Reuters, March 16, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/france-ends-gas-heaters-subsidies-boosts-heat-pumps-bid-cut-russia-reliance-2022-03-16.45
  46. B. Epp, “Fund of EUR ٣ Billion for Decarbonising German District Heating,” Solar Thermal World, August 30, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/fund-of-eur-3-billion-for-decarbonising-german-district-heating.46
  47. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico, “Real Decreto 477/2021, de 29 de junio, por el que se aprueba la concesión directa a las comunidades autónomas y a las ciudades de ceuta y melilla de ayudas para la ejecución de diversos programas de incentivos ligados al autoconsumo y al almacenamiento, con fuentes de energía renovable, así como a la implantación de sistemas térmicos renovables en el sector residencial, en el marco del plan de recuperación, transformación y resiliencia,” 2021, https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rd/2021/06/29/477; A. Rosell, “More Than EUR 1 Billion of Incentives Available in Spain,” Solar Thermal World, October 12, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/more-than-eur-1-billion-of-incentives-available-in-spain.47
  48. Government of the UK, “Ditching Costly Gas and Oil Is Cheaper Thanks to Heat Pump Scheme,” May 23, 2022, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/ditching-costly-gas-and-oil-is-cheaper-thanks-to-heat-pump-scheme.48
  49. E. Hougaard, “Energistyrelsen åbner for ansøgninger til tilskudsordning for etablering af eldrevne varmepumper og solvarmeanlæg til produktion af fjernvarme,” Energistyrelsen, July 12, 2022, https://ens.dk/presse/energistyrelsen-aabner-ansoegninger-til-tilskudsordning-etablering-af-eldrevne-varmepumper-og.49
  50. B. Epp, “EUR ٦٥ Million Provided for Solar District Heating in Kosovo,” Solar Thermal World, July 7, 2022, https://solarthermalworld.org/news/eur-65-million-provided-for-solar-district-heating-in-kosovo.50
  51. cking, “What the ‘Inflation Reduction Act of 2022' Means for Solar,” Solar Energy International, August 22, 2022, https://www.solarenergy.org/what-the-inflation-reduction-act-of-2022-means-for-solar.51
  52. United News of India, “UP Targets to Generate 22k MW Solar Energy in Next 5 Yrs,” November 16, 2022, http://www.uniindia.com/~/up-targets-to-generate-22k-mw-solar-energy-in-next-5-yrs/Business Economy/news/2861956.htm.52
  53. R. Desmornes, “The Inflation Reduction Act ‘Pumps Up' Heat Pumps,” HVAC Solutions, November 4,2022, https://www.hvac.com/resources/inflation-reduction-act-heat-pump-rebates; Rewiring America, “High-Efficiency Electric Home Rebate Act,” 2022, https://www.rewiringamerica.org/policy/high-efficiency-electric-home-rebate-act.53
  54. D. Gibb and M. Morawiecka, “Cleaning Up Heat: The Changing Economics for Heat Pumps in Poland,” Regulatory Assistance Project, November 7, 2022, https://www.raponline.org/knowledge-center/cleaning-up-heat-the-changing-economics-for-heat-pumps-in-poland.54
  55. Bercy Infos, “MaPrimeRénov': la prime pour la rénovation énergétique,” December 30, 2022, https://www.economie.gouv.fr/particuliers/prime-renovation-energetique.55
  56. Figure 6 from REN21 Policy Database, op. cit. note 44.56
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  58. Energy Foundation China, op. cit. note 57.58
  59. D. Gibb and A. Jahn, “‘Game On' for Germany's Heat Pump Transformation,” Regulatory Assistance Project, July 20, 2022, https://www.raponline.org/blog/game-on-germany-heat-pump-transformation.59
  60. N. Kurmayer, “Netherlands to Ban Fossil Heating from 2026, Make Heat Pumps Mandatory,” Euractiv, May 17, 2022, https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy-environment/news/netherlands-to-ban-fossil-heating-by-2026-make-heat-pumps-mandatory.60
  61. Data as of 9 February 2023, from Building Decarbonization Coalition, “Zero Emissions Building Ordinances,” 2022, https://www.buildingdecarb.org/zeb-ordinances.html.61
  62. Ibid.62
  63. L. Louis-Prescott and R. Golden, “How Local Governments and Communities Are Taking Action to Get Fossil Fuels Out of Buildings,” RMI, August 9, 2022, https://rmi.org/taking-action-to-get-fossil-fuels-out-of-buildings.63
  64. E. Pontecorvo, “California's 2030 Ban on Gas Heaters Opens a New Front in the War on Fossil Fuels,” Grist, September 26, 2022, https://grist.org/buildings/californias-2030-ban-on-gas-heaters-opens-a-new-front-in-the-war-on-fossil-fuels; New York State Public Service Commission, “PSC Breathes New Life into Popular Con Edison Clean Heat Program,” November 8, 2022, https://ar.dps.ny.gov/system/files/documents/2022/10/psc-breathes-new-life-into-popular-con-edison-clean-heat-program.pdf.64
  65. T. DiChristopher and A. Duquiatan, “States That Outlaw Gas Bans Account for 31% of US Residential/Commercial Gas Use,” S&P Global Commodity Insights, June 9, 2022, https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/states-that-outlaw-gas-bans-account-for-31-of-us-residential-commercial-gas-use-70749584.65
  66. European Commission, op. cit. note 32.66
  67. E. Christensen, “California's New Building Energy Efficiency Standards, Mandating Solar + Storage, Are Set to Go into Effect on January 1, 2023,” August 1, 2022, https://www.energytoolbase.com/newsroom/blog/californias-new-building-energy-efficiency-standards-mandating-solar-storage.67
  68. J. Spector, “California Is Finally Unlocking Community Solar for the Masses,” Canary Media, September 8, 2022, https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/solar/california-is-finally-unlocking-community-solar-for-the-masses.68
  69. J. John, “New California Rooftop-Solar Plan Drops ‘Solar Tax,' But Fears Remain,” Canary Media, November 10, 2022, https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/solar/new-california-rooftop-solar-plan-drops-solar-tax-but-fears-remain.69
  70. CTV News, “N.S. Government Kills Electric Utility's Bid to Impose ‘Net-Metering' Charge on Solar,” Atlantic, February 2, 2022, https://atlantic.ctvnews.ca/n-s-government-kills-electric-utility-s-bid-to-impose-net-metering-charge-on-solar-1.5764723.70
  71. IEA, op. cit. note 1.71
  72. Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction, “2022 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction,” 2022, http://globalabc.org/our-work/tracking-progress-global-status-report.72
  73. Chinese Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, op. cit. note 57.73
  74. Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction, op. cit. note 72.74
  75. D. Rajeev, “Energy Conservation Bill 2022: Implications and Next Steps,” The Economic Times, December 28, 2022, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/energy-conservation-bill-2022-implications-and-next-steps/articleshow/96562493.cms.75
  76. T. Sawachi, “Context for Building Heating Systems and How Their Energy Efficiencies Are Evaluated in a Building Energy Code of Japan,” 8th IEA-Tsinghua Joint Workshop: Making Buildings Zero-Carbon Ready by 2030 – Near-term Solutions for Heating Systems, October 2022, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/9820c21f-47dc-431d-8b11-28b99dfab44c/
    Session1Presentation4TakaoSawachiContextforbuilding
    heatingsystemsinJapan.pdf    .76
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  90. IEA, “Approximately 100 Million Households Rely on Rooftop Solar PV by 2030 – Analysis,” September 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/approximately-100-million-households-rely-on-rooftop-solar-pv-by-2030.90
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  93. IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (PVPS), “Trends in PV Applications 2022,” 2022, https://iea-pvps.org/trends_reports/trends-2022; IEA, op. cit. note 91.93
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  96. Ibid.96
  97. Ibid.97
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