RENEWABLES 2023 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Renewables in Energy Demand

Challenges and Opportunities for the Uptake of Renewables in Transport

Challenges

Current renewable energy production is not keeping pace with the rapid growth in energy demand for transport, especially in emerging regions.

Despite the sharp rise in electric vehicle sales worldwide, most of the electricity used to power battery electric vehicles and to produce hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles still comes from fossil fuels.

The increased use of battery electric vehicles causes concerns about human rights abuses and the sustainability of mining for raw materials, while interest in crop-based biofuels is marred by the potential competition with other land uses. 120

Solutions are still lacking to substantially decarbonise the long-haul truck, aviation and maritime transport industries.

Fuel subsidies remain one of the biggest barriers to the uptake of renewables in transport, and ongoing tax exemptions for kerosene are hindering the development of alternative fuels in aviation.

Opportunities

The rising price of oil and its intrinsic volatility – along with government efforts to boost energy independence – can encourage a dramatic increase in renewable energy generation.

Rising fossil fuel prices and declining prices for electric alternatives could further incentivise consumers to shift to electric vehicles.

Because the electric vehicle market is increasingly consumer-driven and less dependent on regulation, these vehicles could be a financially viable option in countries where public sector support is limited or non-existent. 121

Concerns about the sustainability of mining and hydrogen production for electrified transport could incentivise industry and government to increase recycling and develop circularity-based business models. 122

Broader acknowledgement of developing countries' limited resources to address climate change is driving international organisations and donors to increase funding for energy transition projects, including potentially renewables-based transport projects. 123

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Most of the electricity used to power electric vehicles and to produce hydrogen fuel cells still comes from fossil fuels.
  1. Global GDP from transport calculated by applying transport share of GDP to global GDP, from World Bank, “GDP (current US$),” https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD, accessed January 12, 2023. Transport share of GDP estimated using a sample of 94 countries, based on the following sources: Trading Economics, “GDP from Transport,” https://tradingeconomics.com/country-list/gdp-from-transport, and “GDP,” https://tradingeconomics.com/country-list/gdp, both accessed January 12, 2023; Government of Canada, “Transportation Enabling Economy Growth,” https://tc.canada.ca/en/corporate-services/transparency/corporate-management-reporting/transportation-canada-annual-reports/transportation-enabling-economy-growth, accessed January 12, 2023; Gambia Data Portal, “Gross Domestic Product of Gambia,” https://gambia.opendataforafrica.org/lmljwvg/gross-domestic-product-of-gambia?indicator=1000140-transport-storage-communication, accessed January 12, 2023. As the value for Spain included hostelry, to estimate it more accurately the figure corresponding to tourism activity during 2021 was discounted, based on INE, “Tourism Satellite Account of Spain. Year 2021,” https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736169169&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735576863, accessed January 12, 2023. For Jamaica and Namibia, it was assumed that the values on Trading Economics were provided in local currency rather than US dollars. Global transport workforce calculated by applying transport share of workforce to global workforce, from World Bank, “Labor Force, Total,” https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?end=2021&start=1990&view=chart, accessed January 12, 2023. Transport share of workforce estimated based on a sample of 53 countries, from International Labour Organization, “Indicator Catalogue,” https://ilostat.ilo.org/data, accessed January 12, 2023. 1
  2. International Energy Agency (IEA), “World Energy Outlook 2022,” October 2022, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099-5530-48f2-a7c1-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022.pdf; growth estimates based on datasets in IEA, “World Energy Balances Highlights,” October 2022, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-balances-highlights#data-sets, all rights reserved, as modified by the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21).2
  3. IEA, “World Energy Balances,” op. cit. note 2. 3
  4. Ibid.4
  5. Ibid.5
  6. Ibid.6
  7. Ibid. 7
  8. Estimates based on IEA, “Energy Consumption in Transport by Fuel in the Net Zero Scenario, 2000-2030,” October 26, 2022, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/energy-consumption-in-transport-by-fuel-in-the-net-zero-scenario-2000-2030, and on REN21 Policy Database. See Reference Table R3a in the GSR 2023 Data Pack, www.ren21.net/gsr2023-data-pack.8
  9. Estimates based on IEA, op. cit. note 8, and on REN21 Policy Database, op. cit. note 8. 9
  10. REN21 estimates the drop in biofuel demand at 4.4%, based on datasets in IEA, “World Energy Balances,” op. cit. note 2.10
  11. IEA, op. cit. note 8.11
  12. H. Ritchie and M. Roser, “Emissions by Sector,” Our World in Data, https://ourworldindata.org/emissions-by-sector, accessed January 3, 2023.12
  13. IEA, “Transport,” September 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/transport.13
  14. Ibid.14
  15. IEA, “Global CO2 Emissions from Transport by Sub-sector in the Net Zero Scenario, 2000-2030,” October 26, 2022, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/global-co2-emissions-from-transport-by-sub-sector-in-the-net-zero-scenario-2000-2030. Total value of CO2 emissions for 2021 from European Commission Joint Research Centre, “Global CO2 Emissions Rebound in 2021 After Temporary Reduction During COVID Lockdown,” October 14, 2022, https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/jrc-news/global-co2-emissions-rebound-2021-after-temporary-reduction-during-covid19-lockdown-2022-10-14_en.15
  16. IEA, op. cit. note 15.16
  17. Ibid.17
  18. IEA, “Energy Efficiency Indicators Data Explorer,” December 2, 2022, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/energy-efficiency-indicators-data-explorer.18
  19. Ibid.19
  20. Transformative Urban Mobility Initiative (TUMI), “Sustainable Urban Transport: Avoid Shift Improve (ASI),” March 2019, https://www.transformative-mobility.org/assets/publications/ASI_TUMI_SUTP_iNUA_No-9_April-2019.pdf. 20
  21. Ibid.21
  22. Ibid. 22
  23. IEA, “Global EV Outlook 2022,” May 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2022.23
  24. M. Vitorino, “Portugal Sets New Goals for Renewable Energy Consumption,” Lexology, December 12, 2022, https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=fe7c9067-8562-475a-bcb9-399b9a6fe73c; Dutch Emissions Authority, “Renewable Energy for Transport 2022-2030,” https://www.emissionsauthority.nl/topics/general---renewable-energy-for-transport, accessed February 7, 2023.24
  25. European Renewable Ethanol, “Overview of Biofuels Policies and Markets Across the EU,” October 2022, https://www.epure.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/221011-DEF-REP-Overview-of-biofuels-policies-and-markets-across-the-EU-October-2022.pdf.25
  26. TUMI, “Curitiba,” April 6, 2022, https://www.transformative-mobility.org/campaigns/curitiba.26
  27. King County, “Transitioning to a Zero-Emissions Fleet,” https://kingcounty.gov/depts/transportation/metro/programs-projects/innovation-technology/zero-emission-fleet.aspx, accessed February 14, 2023.27
  28. C. Isidore, “Why US Gas Prices Are at a Record, and Why They'll Stay High for a Long Time,” CNN Business, June 6, 2022, https://www.cnn.com/2022/06/06/energy/record-gas-prices-causes/index.html; IEA, “World Energy Outlook 2022,” op. cit. note 2.28
  29. Figure 10 from REN21 Policy Database, op. cit. note 8. 29
  30. “Cabinet Amends Biofuels Policy, Advances Ethanol Blending Target to 2025-26,” Economic Times, May 18, 2022, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/cabinet-amends-biofuels-policy-advances-ethanol-blending-target-to-2025-26/articleshow/91637676.cms.30
  31. A. Parmar, “Viewpoint: Asian Biofuels Breaking Away from Europe,” Argus Media, December 15, 2022, https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2400935-viewpoint-asian-biofuels-breaking-away-from-europe; S. Kelly and J. Renshaw, “U.S. EPA Proposes Revamp of Biofuel Program to Include Electric Vehicles,” Reuters, December 1, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/us-epa-proposes-higher-biofuel-blending-volumes-ev-program-2022-12-01.31
  32. REN21 Policy Database, op. cit. note 8. 32
  33. “Brazil to Keep 10% Biodiesel Mandate Until March – CNPE,” Reuters, November 22, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/brazil-keep-10-biodiesel-mandate-until-march-cnpe-2022-11-21.33
  34. Figure 11 from REN21 Policy Database. See Reference Table R3b in the GSR 2023 Data Pack, www.ren21.net/gsr2023-data-pack.34
  35. J. Amir, “Thai Government Announces EV Roadmap,” S&P Global, March 16, 2020, https://www.spglobal.com/mobility/en/research-analysis/thai-government-announces-ev-roadmap.html; 35
  36. Baker Mckenzie, “Philippines: The Electric Vehicle Industry Development Act (EVIDA), Republic Act No. 11697, Lapses into Law,” May 10, 2022, https://insightplus.bakermckenzie.com/bm/tax/philippines-the-electric-vehicle-industry-development-act-evida-republic-act-no-11697-lapses-into-law.36
  37. Kelly and Renshaw, op. cit. note 31.37
  38. REN21 Policy Database, op. cit. note 34.38
  39. “Germany Includes Plug-in Hybrids to Achieve Target of 15 Million EVs by 2030,” Power Technology, February 25, 2022, https://www.power-technology.com/comment/germany-target-15-million-evs. 39
  40. The White House, “FACT SHEET: Biden-Harris Administration Proposes New Standards for National Electric Vehicle Charging Network,” June 9, 2022, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/06/09/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-proposes-new-standards-for-national-electric-vehicle-charging-network. 40
  41. G.Jacquot, “L'obligation de pose de panneaux photovoltaïques sur les grands parkings extérieurs adoptée au Sénat,” Public Senat, November 4, 2022, https://www.publicsenat.fr/article/parlementaire/l-obligation-de-pose-de-panneaux-photovoltaiques-sur-les-grands-parkingshttps://www.publicsenat.fr/article/parlementaire/l-obligation-de-pose-de-panneaux-photovoltaiques-sur-les-grands-parkings.41
  42. Ministry of New & Renewable Energy of India, “India National Hydrogen Mission,” March 2022, https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2023/jan/doc2023110150801.pdf. 42
  43. REN21 Policy Database. See Reference Table R3b in the GSR 2023 Data Pack, www.ren21.net/gsr2023-data-pack.43
  44. Ibid.44
  45. “EU Parliament Votes to Ban Sale of Petrol Car by 2035,” Le Monde, February 14, 2023, https://www.lemonde.fr/en/european-union/article/2023/02/14/eu-parliament-votes-to-ban-petrol-car-sales-by-2035_6015745_156.html.45
  46. Transport Environment, “Kerosene Taxation: How to Implement It in Europe Today,” June 2020, https://www.transportenvironment.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/2020_06_Kerosene_taxation_briefing.pdf.46
  47. International Air Transport Association, “Fact Sheet: EU and US Policy Approaches to Advance SAF Production,” 2021, https://www.iata.org/contentassets/d13875e9ed784f75bac90f000760e998/fact-sheet---us-and-eu-saf-policies.pdf.47
  48. European Council, “ETS Aviation: Council and Parliament Strike Provisional Deal to Reduce Flight Emissions,” December 7, 2022, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/12/07/ets-aviation-council-and-parliament-strike-provisional-deal-to-reduce-flight-emissions.48
  49. D. Shepardson, “U.S. Outlines Roadmap to Boost Sustainable Aviation Fuel,” Reuters, September 23, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/us-outlines-roadmap-boost-sustainable-aviation-fuel-use-2022-09-23.49
  50. US Department of Energy, “SAF Grand Challenge Roadmap – Flight Plan for Sustainable Aviation Fuel,” September 2022, https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/beto-saf-gc-roadmap-report-sept-2022.pdf.50
  51. D. Larsen, “Denmark Aims for Fossil-Fuel Free Inland Flights by 2030,” Electrive, January 4, 2022, https://www.electrive.com/2022/01/04/denmark-aims-for-fossil-fuel-free-inland-flights-by-2030.51
  52. L. Limb, “It's Official: France Bans Short Haul Domestic Flights in Favour of Train Travel,” euronews, December 5, 2022, https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/12/02/is-france-banning-private-jets-everything-we-know-from-a-week-of-green-transport-proposals.52
  53. SNCF, “Un contrat record pour faire rouler vos trains grâce au photovoltaïque,” https://www.sncf.com/fr/groupe/fournisseurs/contrat-ppa-photovoltaique-sncf-energie-reden, accessed December 18, 2022.53
  54. Ibid.54
  55. P. Gururaja, “A Big First Step Toward Green Shipping Corridors,” ClimateWorks Foundation, February 2, 2022, https://www.climateworks.org/blog/green-shipping-corridors; Mission Innovation, “Green Shipping Corridor Route Tracker,” 2023, http://mission-innovation.net/missions/shipping/green-shipping-corridors/route-tracker; C40 Cities, “Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore, Port of Los Angeles, Port of Long Beach and C40 Cities to Establish a Green and Digital Shipping Corridor,” November 7, 2022, https://www.c40.org/news/maritime-and-port-authority-of-singapore-port-of-los-angeles-port-of-long-beach-and-c40-cities-to-establish-a-green-and-digital-shipping-corridor. Snapshot: US-China based on C40 Cities, “Port of Los Angeles, Port of Shanghai, and C40 Cities Announce Partnership to Create World's First Transpacific Green Shipping Corridor Between Ports in the United States and China,” January 28, 2022, https://www.c40.org/news/la-shanghai-green-shipping-corridor. 55
  56. UN Climate Change Conference UK 2021, “Clydebank Declaration for Green Shipping Corridors,” November 10, 2021, https://ukcop26.org/cop-26-clydebank-declaration-for-green-shipping-corridors.56
  57. BloombergNEF, “Energy Transition Investment Trends 2023,” January 2023, https://about.bnef.com/energy-transition-investment.57
  58. IEA, “Biofuels – Renewables 2021 – Analysis,” 2021, https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2021/biofuels?mode=transport&region=World&publication=2021&flow=Consumption&product=Ethanol. See also Reference Table R3a in the GSR 2023 Data Pack, www.ren21.net/gsr2023-data-pack.58
  59. M. Teixeira, “High Energy Prices Fuel Investor Interest in Brazil's Idle Biofuel Capacity,” Reuters, June 8, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/high-energy-prices-fuel-investor-interest-brazils-idle-biofuel-capacity-2022-06-08.59
  60. S&P Global Commodity Insights, “Top Biofuels Market Trends in 2022 and Beyond,” 2022, https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/ci/info/0322/top-biofuels-market-trends-2022-beyond.html; glpautogas.info, “HVO 100 Stations in USA, Map and Updated Listing,” https://www.glpautogas.info/en/hvo100-stations-united-states.html, accessed January 31, 2023.60
  61. Phillips 66, “Phillips 66 Makes Final Investment Decision to Convert San Francisco Refinery to a Renewable Fuels Facility,” May 11, 2022, https://investor.phillips66.com/financial-information/news-releases/news-release-details/2022/Phillips-66-Makes-Final-Investment-Decision-to-Convert-San-Francisco-Refinery-to-a-Renewable-Fuels-Facility.61
  62. S&P Global Commodity Insights, op. cit. note 60; glpautogas.info, op. cit. note 60.62
  63. BloombergNEF, op. cit. note 57; M. Prestes, “Palm Oil for Biodiesel in the Amazon: Sustainable Fuel or Deforestation Risk?” Global Issues, May 4, 2022, https://www.globalissues.org/news/2022/04/04/30517. 63
  64. Figure 12 from BloombergNEF, op. cit. note 57.64
  65. BloombergNEF, “Electric Vehicle Outlook 2022,” 2022, https://about.bnef.com/electric-vehicle-outlook.65
  66. BloombergNEF, “Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Prices Rise for First Time to an Average of $151/kWh,” December 6, 2022, https://about.bnef.com/blog/lithium-ion-battery-pack-prices-rise-for-first-time-to-an-average-of-151-kwh.66
  67. Neste, “Green Finance Report 2021,” 2022, https://www.neste.com/investors.67
  68. P. Tisheva, “Saudi Arabia's Alfanar to Invest GBP 1bn in UK SAF Project,” Renewables Now, March 17, 2022, https://renewablesnow.com/news/saudi-arabias-alfanar-to-invest-gbp-1bn-in-uk-saf-project-777358.68
  69. S&P Global Commodity Insights, op. cit. note 60.69
  70. I. Thomas, “United Airlines Is Aiming to Have Electric Planes Flying by 2030,” CNBC, October 10, 2022, https://www.cnbc.com/2022/10/06/united-airlines-is-aiming-to-have-electric-planes-flying-by-2030.html.70
  71. “Air Canada to Buy 30 Electric Planes from Heart Aerospace,” Reuters, September 15, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/air-canada-buy-30-electric-planes-heart-aerospace-2022-09-15; W. Bellamy III, “Air Canada Signs Purchase Agreement for Heart's Updated ES-30 Electric Aircraft,” Aviation Today, September 20, 2022, https://www.aviationtoday.com/2022/09/20/air-canada-signs-purchase-agreement-hearts-updated-es-30-electric-aircraft.71
  72. D. Burroughs, “ÖBB to Invest €١bn in Renewable Energy by ٢٠٣٠,” International Railway Journal, May 13, 2022, https://www.railjournal.com/financial/obb-to-invest-e1bn-in-renewable-energy-by-2030.72
  73. International Renewable Energy Agency, “Technology Brief: Renewable Energy Options for Shipping,” January 2015, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2015/IRENA_Tech_Brief_RE_for-Shipping_2015.pdf.73
  74. International Transport Forum, “ITF Transport Outlook 2021,” May 17, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/transport/itf-transport-outlook-2021_16826a30-en. 74
  75. Ibid.75
  76. Ibid.76
  77. Based on recover scenario in Ibid.77
  78. Estimates based on datasets in IEA, “World Energy Balances,” op. cit. note 2.78
  79. Ibid.79
  80. Ibid.80
  81. Ibid. Growth rates calculated using averages pre-COVID-19. 81
  82. Ibid.82
  83. Figure 13 from Ibid. Growth rates calculated using averages pre-COVID-19.83
  84. Ibid.84
  85. Ibid.85
  86. Ibid.86
  87. Road transport's share of emissions based on IEA, “Energy Statistics Data Browser,” https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/energy-statistics-data-browser?country=WORLD&fuel=Energy%20supply&indicator=TESbySource, August 18, 2022; global emissions from M. Crippa et al., “CO2 emissions of all world countries – 2022 Report,” European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2022, https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC130363; shares of light vehicles based on 2019 values from IEA, op. cit. note 13, and on International Council for Clean Transportation, “Light Vehicles,” https://theicct.org/sector/light-vehicles, accessed December 15, 2022.87
  88. Estimates based on International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers (OICA), “Global Sales Statistics 2019-2021,” https://www.oica.net/category/sales-statistics, accessed December 16, 2022, and on IEA, “As the Covid-19 Crisis Hammers the Auto Industry, Electric Cars Remain a Bright Spot,” May 18, 2020, https://www.iea.org/commentaries/as-the-covid-19-crisis-hammers-the-auto-industry-electric-cars-remain-a-bright-spot. Europe includes the Russian Federation and Türkiye.88
  89. IEA, op. cit. note 88. 89
  90. Ibid. 90
  91. European Automobile Manufacturers' Association (ACEA), “Vehicles in Use Europe 2022,” January 2022, https://www.acea.auto/files/ACEA-report-vehicles-in-use-europe-2022.pdf; Wikipedia, “List of Countries by Vehicles per Capita,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_vehicles_per_capita, accessed January 10, 2022.91
  92. REN21 Policy Database, op. cit. note 8. 92
  93. Estimates based on Ibid. and on IEA, op. cit. note 8; IEA, “Biofuels,” September 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/biofuels. 93
  94. Snapshot: Spain based on the following sources: Energías Renovables, “Bioenergía – Una veintena de autobuses urbanos de Madrid abandonan el gas natural y lo sustituyen por biometano de vertedero,” September 8, 2022, https://www.energias-renovables.com/bioenergia/los-autobuses-urbanos-de-madrid-abandonan-el-20220908; Foro de Empresas por Madrid, “Los autobuses madrileños se moverán con biometano,” August 9, 2022, https://www.forodeempresaspormadrid.es/actualidad/foro/los-autobuses-madrilenos-se-moveran-con-biometano; NGV Journal, “Madrid Expands PTV Biogas Plant, Will Be Able to Supply 500 EMT Buses,” April 21, 2022, http://www.ngvjournal.com/s1-news/c4-stations/madrid-expands-valdemingomez-biogas-plant-will-be-able-to-supply-500-buses; Ayuntamiento de Madrid, “Madrid utilizará el biometano de Valdemingómez para mover los autobuses de EMT,” July 9, 2022, https://www.madrid.es/portales/munimadrid/es/Inicio/Actualidad/Noticias/Madrid-utilizara-el-biometano-de-Valdemingomez-para-mover-los-autobuses-de-EMT.94
  95. European Commission, “Mobility and Transport, Biofuels,” https://transport.ec.europa.eu/transport-modes/air/environment/biofuels_en, accessed January 9, 2023; G. Squadrin, B. O'Kelly and S. Barthel, “Viewpoint: HVO, SAF Demand to Outstrip Supply in 2022,” Argus Media, December 22, 2021, https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2285785-viewpoint-hvo-saf-demand-to-outstrip-supply-in-2022.95
  96. Airbus, “Airbus A330MRTT Completes First 100% SAF Test Flight on Both Engines,” November 18, 2022, https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2022-11-airbus-a330mrtt-completes-first-100-saf-test-flight-on-both-engines; Neste, “First Flight in History with 100% Sustainable Aviation Fuel on a Regional Commercial Aircraft,” June 21, 2022, https://www.neste.com/releases-and-news/renewable-solutions/first-flight-history-100-sustainable-aviation-fuel-regional-commercial-aircraft.96
  97. IEA, “World Energy Balances,” op. cit. note 2. 97
  98. Ibid.98
  99. Ibid.99
  100. OICA, op. cit. note 88; IEA, “Electric Vehicles,” September 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/electric-vehicles; IEA, “Global EV Data Explorer,” May 23, 2022, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer.100
  101. Here “vehicles” refers to automobiles, trucks, vans and buses. Estimated based on IEA, “Global EV Data Explorer,” op. cit. note 100.101
  102. IEA, “Electric Vehicles,” op. cit. note 100.102
  103. Ibid.103
  104. Ibid. 104
  105. IEA, “Global EV Data Explorer,” op. cit. note 100.105
  106. BloombergNEF, “Electric Vehicle Outlook 2022, Executive Summary, Near Term Outlook,” 2022, https://bnef.turtl.co/story/evo-2022/page/3/2. 106
  107. IEA, “Global EV Data Explorer,” op. cit. note 100.107
  108. IEA, op. cit. note 18.108
  109. Ibid. 109
  110. J. Biba, “Will Charging an Electric Car Ever Be Quick and Easy?” Builtin, November 1, 2022, https://builtin.com/transportation-tech/electric-vehicle-charging.110
  111. INES, “ITE INES.2S Mettre du solaire dans votre véhicule (électrique),” September 15, 2022, https://www.ines-solaire.org/news/ite-ines.2s-mettre-du-solaire-dans-votre-vehicule-electrique; E. Bellini “Vehicle-integrated PV for Heavy-duty Trucks,” pv magazine, October 21, 2021, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2021/10/25/vehicle-integrated-pv-for-heavy-duty-trucks.111
  112. International Organization for Standardization, “ISO 15118-20:2022(en) Road vehicles — Vehicle to grid communication interface — Part 20: 2nd generation network layer and application layer requirements,” 2022, https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:15118:-20:ed-1:v1:en; Virta, “Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G): Everything You Need to Know,” https://www.virta.global/vehicle-to-grid-v2g, accessed January 4, 2022.112
  113. IEA, “Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Stock by Region and by Mode, 2021,” October 26, 2022, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/fuel-cell-electric-vehicle-stock-by-region-and-by-mode-2021. 113
  114. US Department of Energy, “Hydrogen's Role in Transportation,” February 25, 2022, https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/hydrogens-role-transportation.114
  115. IEA, “Hydrogen,” September 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/hydrogen; Hydrogen Central, “Quantron Hydrogen-Powered Truck Has a Range of 1500 Km,” September 27, 2022, https://hydrogen-central.com/quantron-hydrogen-powered-truck-range-1500-km.115
  116. IEA, “Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Stock and Hydrogen Refuelling Stations by Region, 2021,” October 26, 2022, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/fuel-cell-electric-vehicle-stock-and-hydrogen-refuelling-stations-by-region-2021.116
  117. IEA, op. cit. note 115.117
  118. Ibid.118
  119. Ibid.119
  120. Business & Human Rights Resource Centre, “Human Rights in the Mineral Supply Chains of Electric Vehicles,” https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/from-us/briefings/transition-minerals-sector-case-studies/human-rights-in-the-mineral-supply-chains-of-electric-vehicles, accessed March 8, 2023. 120
  121. BloombergNEF, op. cit. note 106.121
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