RENEWABLES 2024
GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Renewables in Energy Supply

2024

GEOTHERMAL POWER AND HEAT

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Key Facts
GEOTHERMAL POWER AND HEAT

  • New geothermal power generating capacity of 0.1 GW came online in 2023, bringing the global total to around 14.8 GW, marking the second year of decline in new installations.
  • Capacity was added in Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, the United States, and Taiwan, but not all locations saw a net increase in operational capacity.
  • Geothermal direct-use (which does not include heat pumps) reached an estimated 205 TWh (737 PJ) in 2023, around one-third higher than the previous year's estimate (155 TWh).
  • China is the world's fastest-growing geothermal heat market.

In 2023, the term “next-generation” was an increasingly common qualifier in references to geothermal energy i . Following decades of minuscule absolute growth relative to global energy supply and demand, ongoing advances and cost reductions in both drilling technologies and methods of geothermal field enhancement – along with further refinements in energy extraction and generation technology – have driven a somewhat renewed sense of optimism for the future of geothermal heat and power. While geothermal energy is theoretically ubiquitous, it has been technically and economically prohibitive in most places other than where the Earth's lithospheric plates meet. New technologies and improving economics suggest that this may change.

Geothermal energy is derived from thermal and pressure differentials in the Earth's crust, providing direct thermal energy or electricity by use of steam turbines. In 2023, geothermal electricity generation totalled an estimated 97.3 TWh, and direct useful thermal energy supply totalled an estimated 205 TWh (737 PJ). 1 In some instances, geothermal plants produce both electricity and heat for thermal applications (co-generation), but this option depends on location-specific thermal demand coinciding with the geothermal resource. 2

For electricity generation, 0.1 GW ii of new geothermal power capacity was added in 2023, bringing the global total to around 14.8 GW. 3 This marked the second year of decline in new installations and was below the five-year average of 0.4 GW for the years 2018-2022, with contraction in Türkiye weighing most heavily in recent years. 4 Capacity was added in Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, the United States, and Taiwan, but not all locations saw a net increase in operational capacity. 5 (See Figure 20.)

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The top 10 countries for geothermal power capacity at the end of 2023 were the United States, Indonesia, the Philippines, Türkiye, New Zealand, Kenya, Mexico, Italy, Iceland and Japan. 6 However, capacity values are subject to high uncertainty due to a lack of standardised reporting criteria, and values for some countries may be greatly overstated relative to actual achievable output. 7

Indonesia's stated installed geothermal power capacity expanded in 2023 by 57 MW, similar to the previous year's growth. 8 On North Sumatra, the fourth unit (50 MW) was completed at the Sorik Marapi project following a commensurate expansion the preceding year, bringing the plant to 140 MW. 9 Earlier in the year, a second unit (3 MW) was added at the Sokoria development. 10 In the western part of Java, a 15 MW binary-cycle iii expansion project was nearing completion at year's end. 11 The developer noted that additional opportunities on Java were somewhat limited. 12

The US government is actively pursuing “next-generation” technology advancement and cost reduction for closed loop and enhanced geothermal systems (EGS).

During the five-year period 2018-2023, geothermal capacity in Indonesia grew 24% (average of 94 MW annually), from 1.9 GW to more than 2.4 GW. 13 The government of Indonesia envisions geothermal power capacity to grow as much as 10-fold by 2060 (to 23 GW), which represents the limit of the current assessed resource potential. 14 To achieve this goal, the country hopes to improve data on geothermal resource potential, in addition to financing and other risk mitigation efforts, to attract further investment. 15 At the same time, the government is mindful of environmental impacts of geothermal development, as most resources are found in ecologically sensitive forest areas. 16 In 2022, Indonesia's geothermal power generation totalled 16.7 GWh (up from 14.0 GWh in 2018), or 5% of the country's total grid supply (down from 5.2% in 2018). 17

Kenya added the first of three 35 MW plants to be completed in the Menengai geothermal field. 18 Difficulty in securing financing for this public-private partnership had delayed construction despite partial risk guarantees from the African Development Fund, as well as the Kenyan government's development of the geothermal steam resources, beginning with the first well drilled in 2011. 19 Upgrades at other facilities are expected to yield an incremental 140 MW of geothermal capacity by the end of 2026. 20 Poor hydrological conditions have hampered hydropower production in recent years and underscored the need to develop more of the country's geothermal resources to meet growing demand and government goals to displace fossil fuel use. 21 Kenya's stated geothermal capacity was just under 1 GW in 2023, providing around half of the electricity supply. 22

FIGURE 20.Geothermal Power Capacity and Additions, Top 10 Countries and Rest of World, 2023

FIGURE 20.

Source: See endnote 5 for this section.

In the United States, a 25 MW binary-cycle power plant, along with a dedicated 95 kilometre transmission line, was completed in North Valley, Nevada. 23 This 1% increase in installed geothermal power, to nearly 2.7 GW, is in line with the recent trend: during the five-year period of 2017-2022, net capacity increased 6.7%. 24 However, this modest growth in capacity resulted in only a 1% increase in geothermal generation over the period, suggesting a relative decline in output from older facilities. 25 While installed generator capacity at US geothermal power facilities stands at 4.0 GW, the gradual decline in steam production at older geothermal fields, specifically the Geysers geothermal field in California, has led to significant de-ratings and to effective net operating capacity of merely 2.7 GW. 26 Geothermal power in the United States supplied up to 16.5 TWh iv in 2023, less than 0.4% of the country's net electricity generation. 27

The US government is actively pursuing “next-generation” technology advancement and cost reduction for enhanced geothermal systems v (EGS) and closed-loop geothermal systems. The aim is to harness energy from ubiquitous dry hot rock, found at great depth, instead of being limited to hydrothermal formations that form the basis of conventional geothermal power production, limited to a relatively few locations globally. 28 EGS uses hydraulic fracturing to create a reservoir where fluid flows openly, whereas in closed-loop systems the fluid is restricted to long boreholes. 29 Both approaches depend on wells drilled both vertically and horizontally (using directional drilling technology) that may extend thousands of metres. 30 Advancements during 2021-2023 have reduced US estimated EGS project costs 50%, supporting the objective to achieve levelised costs of electricity of USD 45 per MWh by 2035 and to install 90 GW of new geothermal power capacity by 2050. 31

Technology companies engaged in developing closed-loop systems made advancements in 2023, including successful drilling projects by Eavor Technologies (Canada) in Germany and the US state of New Mexico, and by Fervo Energy (United States) in the states of Nevada and Utah. 32

Japan added a few relatively small new and replacement geothermal generating units in 2023, but overall generation capacity did not expand. 33 Among these new units was the replacement of the 14.9 MW Onikobe plant in Miyagi prefecture. 34 After 42 years of operation (built in 1975 but shut down in 2017), the plant was replaced entirely, and new production- and reinjection wells were drilled. 35 The original plant had suffered rapid production decline from the start due to reservoir characteristics and other factors, but the new facility was designed to reflect that experience. 36

Two small (2 MW) units were completed elsewhere in Japan: a single-flash unit in Kumamoto prefecture and a binary-cycle plant on the island of Hokkaido. 37 The binary unit is somewhat similar in conception to a 150 kW unit installed at a thermal bath facility in the Kumamoto region in 2022, which was designed to utilise, for greater efficiency, unused thermal energy from the geothermal fluid of the existing Mori geothermal plant before the water is reinjected to the ground. 38 By early 2024, Japan added the 14.9 MW Appi geothermal plant in Iwate prefecture. 39 Along with other geothermal projects in the country, the facility benefited from government-funded risk mitigation in the form of debt guarantees for resource development funding. 40 Aside from a feed-in tariff (FIT) for produced energy, government support for Japan's geothermal industry includes direct technology development, low-interest loans, exploration and drilling subsidies, and technical resource assessment. 41

Despite the modest addition of new capacity in recent years, Japan's overall geothermal capacity portfolio has not expanded. 42 Due to insufficient understanding of reservoir capacities and the installation of oversized turbine generators relative to the actual potential of the reservoirs, geothermal fields declined and total capacity contracted between 2012 and 2018, subsequently seeing some decommissioned capacity replaced with smaller generators. 43 Geothermal power generation in Japan peaked in 1996 and has since been in decline. As of 2022, only around 0.3 GW of the more than 0.5 GW of installed nameplate capacity was running, contributing around 0.2% of the electricity supply. 44

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In Taiwan, two small geothermal plants were completed: a 1 MW Sihuangziping binary-cycle plant in New Taipei City (to be followed by a larger 4 MW unit at the same location) and a 840 kW Renze facility in Yilan County. 45 With only a few megawatts of installed capacity, geothermal power provided only 0.01% of Taiwan's electricity supply. 46

By one measure, the Philippines continued to rank third globally for total installed geothermal power capacity at 1.9 GW (generator nameplate), despite very little new development in the industry in recent years. 47 Of that total, only 1.7 GW was operating capacity, and only 64% of that (1.1 GW) was available for dispatch at the end of 2023. 48 Further, operating capacity appeared to have declined overall by net 55 MW during the year. 49 Only 86 MW of new capacity was added since 2008, when legislation supporting renewable energy deployment was passed. 50 A 3.6 MW binary add-on unit, completed in 2022, was the first new capacity in four years, and no capacity expansion was recorded for 2023. 51

Nonetheless, at year's end, at least three geothermal power plants were nearing completion in the Philippines: the 17 MW Tiwi and 29 MW Palayan plants, and an initial 2 MW on the island of Biliran. 52 Additionally, the 20 MW Tanawon and 5.6 MW Bago units were expected to be online in 2024. 53 Most of these units will operate on a closed-loop binary cycle (Tanawon is a traditional hydrothermal flash-steam unit) and, as has been common in recent years, some are designed to utilise residual heat contained in the fluid effluent of existing geothermal installations to produce additional electricity, without necessarily requiring additional steam generation. 54

Steam production from geothermal fields is a limiting factor for some existing plants in the Philippines (as in other locations globally), especially some older facilities in Luzon where operating capacity has been in decline since 2018 and the average availability factor vi was merely 57% in 2023. 55 Plants on the Visayan Islands performed better, with 75% availability and little loss of operating capacity in recent years. 56 Geothermal generating assets in the Philippines are favoured for baseload power and were dispatched near or at available capacity in 2023. 57 This allowed geothermal power to provide around 9% of the electricity supply in 2023. 58

A few technology companies are working towards commercial success of closed-loop systems in more marginal resource locations.

Türkiye added no geothermal power capacity in 2023, as in the previous year. 59 This is significant because Türkiye was the world's most active geothermal power market from 2008 through 2019, when capacity grew from merely 30 MW to 1.5 GW, most of which (1.1 GW) was installed in the latter five years of that period. 60 Capacity growth then contracted to 99 MW in 2020 and 63 MW in 2021 before coming to a complete halt. 61 Yet, as of 2023, Türkiye had 15 geothermal plants in the pre-licensing stage, totalling 320 MW. 62

In late 2023, the Turkish government issued a revamped renewable electricity FIT, which was expected to spur new growth in the sector. 63 The previous FIT, introduced in early 2021, was deemed insufficient to maintain the investment levels of the earlier period. 64 In 2023, geothermal power in Türkiye provided 11 TWh of electricity or 3.4% of total supply. 65

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Geothermal Heat

Global geothermal direct use vii – direct extraction of geothermal energy for thermal applications – reached an estimated 205 TWh (737 PJ) in 2023, around one-third higher than the previous year's estimate (155 TWh). 66 The 2022 estimate was an extrapolation based on reported values for 2019 and the preceding five-year growth rate, which appears to have underestimated growth in the two largest markets, China and Türkiye. The 2023 estimate is based on reported capacities in each of the four largest markets (by installed capacity), which together comprise an estimated 85% of the world total. 67

Growth in geothermal heat use is dominatedby China and Türkiye.

The top countries for geothermal direct use in 2023 were (in descending order) China, Türkiye, Iceland and Japan. 68 (See Figure 21.) Geothermal direct use remained highly concentrated in these four markets (and further localised within each country); other notable users were (in descending order) New Zealand, Hungary, the Russian Federation, Italy, the United States and Brazil. 69

China has remained the world's fastest growing geothermal heat market, with compound annual growth exceeding 21% during the years 2015-2019, reaching 14.2 GW of capacity (and 197 PJ of energy) in 2019. 70 For the 2023-2024 heating season, Sinopec viii reported a 15% increase in geothermal heating capacity, serving an additional 95 million square metres of space. 71 Based on stated assumptions for average thermal demand per square metre, this suggests total annual direct use of as much as 469 PJ, but this value is subject to great uncertainty due to imprecise reporting methods and the assumptions ix required for energy conversion. 72 This implies some acceleration of direct use for space heating relative to the earlier period, a very robust 24.2% compound annual growth from 2019 through 2023. 73 In 2022, China's 14th Five-Year Plan for energy efficiency and green building development emphasised continued expansion of geothermal energy use for space heating. 74

In Türkiye, reported geothermal heat use grew 3.8% annually on average during 2015-2019, reaching 3.5 GW of capacity and 54.4 PJ of energy use in 2019. 75 This growth appears to have accelerated significantly since then, as total capacity was reported to reach 5.2 GW by 2022. 76 Based on the ratio of energy use per unit capacity in 2019, this updated capacity value suggests that geothermal direct use may have reached 93 PJ in 2023, at a compound annual growth of more than 14% since 2019. 77

FIGURE 21.Geothermal Direct Use, Top 4 Countries and Rest of World, 2023

FIGURE 21.

Source: See endnote 68 for this section.

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Iceland continued to rank third globally in the use of geothermal heat. 78 The country's estimated geothermal heat consumption for 2022 was essentially unchanged from the preceding year at 35 PJ (1.4% average growth annually since 2019), from an installed capacity of around 2.5 gigawatts-thermal (GWth). 79 Residential use was the largest consumer (16.3 PJ), followed by commercial and public services (12.9 PJ). 80 Other uses included fisheries (4.1 PJ), industry (1.1 PJ) and agriculture (0.6 PJ). 81 Across these categories, space heating accounted for the bulk of geothermal direct use (24.2 PJ). 82

For Japan, which ranked fourth for geothermal direct use, no apparent data were available indicating any capacity expansion in recent years. 83 Capacity remained at 2.4 GWth and energy use was just under 30 PJ (virtually no growth since 2019). 84

On continental Europe, geothermal heat development has been highly localised and coincides mostly with the richest hydrothermal locations. These include, in particular, southern regions of Germany (Bavaria), some parts of France, and various locations in Hungary, Italy and the Netherlands. 85 As geothermal technologies advance, development appears to be expanding to more locations. Of the more than 300 projects under consideration or development at the end of 2022, more than a third was located elsewhere in Europe, including Poland, the Balkans and the United Kingdom. 86

In Germany, one new geothermal plant came online in 2023 with a thermal capacity of 8 megawatts-thermal. 87 This represented a 2% increase to the installed base of around 400 MW of geothermal heat capacity, which provided 6.5 PJ (1.8 TWh) of heat in 2023. 88 The new plant is notable for being the largest (albeit small) heat plant outside resource-rich Bavaria, where 95% of Germany's geothermal heat capacity is located. 89 Serving around 2,000 households in Schwerin, the plant draws on relatively cool water (56°C) from a depth of nearly 1,300 metres. 90 The plant uses heat pumps to achieve higher temperatures suitable for district heating systems (80°C), requiring 1.7 MW of power from the on-site gas-fired generator. 91 Biomethane is expected to eventually substitute for the natural gas supply, allowing the plant's renewable output to reach 100%. 92

In the Netherlands, geothermal heat production grew 6%for the second year running.

In the Netherlands, geothermal heat production increased again by 6% (as in the previous year), reaching 6.8 PJ. 93 This heat output was produced from 39 well pairs (production and re-injection wells) at 27 locations and is sufficient to supply around 165,000 households, equivalent to the city of Utrecht. 94 The Netherlands' richest hydrothermal sources are at around 3 kilometres depth, where temperatures reach 90-100°C. 95

In France, development of direct-use systems (mostly district heat) has been concentrated in the Paris region (Île-de-France), as well as to the south-west in Aquitaine and to the east in Alsace. 96

Multiple geothermal district heat systems have been developed in and around Paris in recent years, but the only plant inaugurated in 2023 was a low-temperature (shallow) ground-source heat pump application, serving the Pleyel district in Saint-Denis. 97 Designed to supply both heating and cooling networks simultaneously, the project relies on source water of merely 14°C (from a shallow depth of 50-70 metres), making it fully dependent on electrically driven heat pumps to serve positive thermal load (space heating) in buildings. 98

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Footnotes

i Here, the term refers mostly to energy derived from medium-to-high enthalpy (>100 degrees Celsius (°C)) hydrothermal or hot dry-rock resources, and typically at significant depth. Specifically, it does not include the renewable final energy output of near-surface, ground-source (or ground-coupled) heat pumps, sometimes referred to as “geothermal heat pumps”. (p See Heat Pumps section.)

ii Net additions tend to be lower than the sum of new plants due to decommissioning or de-rating of existing capacity.

iii In a binary-cycle plant, which has become the most common design at plants built in recent years, the geothermal fluid heats and vaporises a separate working fluid (with a lower boiling point than water) that drives a turbine to generate electricity. Each fluid cycle is closed, and the geothermal fluid is re-injected into the heat reservoir. The binary cycle allows an effective and efficient extraction of heat for power generation from relatively low-temperature geothermal fluids. Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) binary geothermal plants use an organic working fluid, and the Kalina Cycle uses a non-organic working fluid. Conversely, geothermal steam can be used directly to drive the turbine, but this is more typical for high-enthalpy applications.

iv Generation data for geothermal power in the United States, as first reported, tend to be revised downward by the following year.

v While conventional hydrothermal systems rely on sufficient heat, permeability and fluid to deliver energy to the surface, enhanced geothermal systems can be implemented where fluid and permeability are lacking. In an EGS, injecting fluid into the hot rock at great pressure creates fractures that allow fluid pathways to form, which can be used for an induced hydrothermal cycle.

vi The availability factor equals the total number of hours a unit is available for dispatch in a given period (service hours plus reserve shutdown hours) divided by the total number of hours in the same period.

vii Direct use refers here to deep geothermal resources, irrespective of scale, that use geothermal fluid directly (i.e., direct use) or by direct transfer via heat exchangers. It does not include the use of shallow geothermal resources, specifically those tapped with ground-source heat pumps. (p See Heat Pumps section.)

viii Developer of hydrothermal resources for district heating in China.

ix See endnote for assumptions and sources.

  1. Estimates are based on the following sources: power capacity data for Iceland, Indonesia, Kenya, the Philippines, Türkiye and the United States from sources noted elsewhere in this section; New Zealand from New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, “Electricity Statistics”, accessed April 2024, https://www.mbie.govt.nz/building-and-energy/energy-and-natural-resources/energy-statistics-and-modelling/energy-statistics/electricity-statistics; capacity data for other countries from International Renewable Energy Agency, “Renewable Capacity Statistics 2024”, 2024, https://prod-cd.irena.org/Publications/2024/Mar/Renewable-capacity-statistics-2024; estimated electricity generation in 2023 based on International Energy Agency, “Renewables Energy Progress Tracker”, 11 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/renewables-data-explorer. Heat output in 2023 is based on sources for the four largest markets (China, Türkiye, Iceland and Japan) noted elsewhere in this section, and a nominal 1% annual growth rate since 2019 for the rest of the world. Comprehensive heat data for 2019 from J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf.1
  2. For heat applications, geothermal fluid can be used directly or via heat exchangers, where the fluid is re-injected into the crust. For electricity generation, geothermal steam is used directly to drive turbines (either dry or flash steam), or, in the case of binary-cycle plants, geothermal fluid is used to heat a secondary working fluid that powers the turbine. Sub-surface geothermal fluid undergoes flash evaporation to steam as pressure drops ascending a wellbore and at the power plant.2
  3. End-2022 capacity data and capacity additions in 2023 based on the following sources: power capacity data for Iceland, Indonesia, Kenya, the Philippines, Türkiye and the United States from sources noted elsewhere in this section; New Zealand from New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, “Electricity Statistics”, accessed April 2024, https://www.mbie.govt.nz/building-and-energy/energy-and-natural-resources/energy-statistics-and-modelling/energy-statistics/electricity-statistics; capacity data for other countries from International Renewable Energy Agency, “Renewable Capacity Statistics 2024”, 2024, https://prod-cd.irena.org/Publications/2024/Mar/Renewable-capacity-statistics-2024; estimated electricity generation in 2023 based on International Energy Agency, “Renewables Energy Progress Tracker”, 11 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/renewables-data-explorer. Heat output in 2023 is based on sources for the four largest markets (China, Türkiye, Iceland and Japan) noted elsewhere in this section, and a nominal 1% annual growth rate since 2019 for the rest of the world. Comprehensive heat data for 2019 from J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf.3
  4. REN21, “Renewables Global Status Report”, 2019-2023 editions, https://www.ren21.net/reports/global-status-report.4
  5. Estimates are based on the following sources: power capacity data for Iceland, Indonesia, Kenya, the Philippines, Türkiye and the United States from sources noted elsewhere in this section; New Zealand from New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, “Electricity Statistics”, accessed April 2024, https://www.mbie.govt.nz/building-and-energy/energy-and-natural-resources/energy-statistics-and-modelling/energy-statistics/electricity-statistics; capacity data for other countries from International Renewable Energy Agency, “Renewable Capacity Statistics 2024”, 2024, https://prod-cd.irena.org/Publications/2024/Mar/Renewable-capacity-statistics-2024; estimated electricity generation in 2023 based on International Energy Agency, “Renewables Energy Progress Tracker”, 11 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/renewables-data-explorer. Heat output in 2023 is based on sources for the four largest markets (China, Türkiye, Iceland and Japan) noted elsewhere in this section, and a nominal 1% annual growth rate since 2019 for the rest of the world. Comprehensive heat data for 2019 from J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf. Figure 20 based on end-2022 capacity data and capacity additions in 2023 from the sources listed above, and from sources noted elsewhere in this section. For the purpose of this figure, end-2022 capacity is assumed to be equal to end-2023 capacity less new capacity installed (or capacity expansion) during 2023.5
  6. End-2022 capacity data is estimated from the following sources: power capacity data for Iceland, Indonesia, Kenya, the Philippines, Türkiye and the United States from sources noted elsewhere in this section; New Zealand from New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, “Electricity Statistics”, accessed April 2024, https://www.mbie.govt.nz/building-and-energy/energy-and-natural-resources/energy-statistics-and-modelling/energy-statistics/electricity-statistics; capacity data for other countries from International Renewable Energy Agency, “Renewable Capacity Statistics 2024”, 2024, https://prod-cd.irena.org/Publications/2024/Mar/Renewable-capacity-statistics-2024; estimated electricity generation in 2023 based on International Energy Agency, “Renewables Energy Progress Tracker”, 11 January 2024, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/renewables-data-explorer. Heat output in 2023 is based on sources for the four largest markets (China, Türkiye, Iceland and Japan) noted elsewhere in this section, and a nominal 1% annual growth rate since 2019 for the rest of the world. Comprehensive heat data for 2019 from J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf. Capacity additions in 2023, by country, from sources noted elsewhere in this section. 6
  7. In some instances, the effective geothermal generating capacity (achievable or running capacity) may be lower than indicated values, due to gradual degradation of the steam-generating capability of geothermal fields or to insufficient drilling of make-up wells to replenish steam flow over time. If a geothermal power plant extracts heat and steam from the reservoir at a rate that exceeds the rate of replenishment across all its boreholes, additional wells may be drilled over time to tap additional steam flow, provided that the geothermal field overall is capable of supporting additional steam flow. For example, the effective net generation capacity in the United States was 2.7 GW at the end of 2023, as resource depletion in particular has limited the effective output far below the stated gross nameplate capacity of 4.0 GW. This resource-limited capability of a geothermal plant defines its dependable running capacity, as opposed to the total nameplate capacity of its generator(s). For the United States, most of the difference between nameplate and running capacity (around 800 MW) results from plant de-rating at the Geysers geothermal field in California, which is not able to produce enough steam, due to productivity decline, to operate at nameplate capacity. Net summer capacity from US Energy Information Administration (EIA), “Electric Power Monthly”, February 2023, Table 6.2.B, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly; nameplate capacity from US EIA, “Form EIA-860M (Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory)”, December 2023, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/eia860m; US Department of Energy, Office of Scientific and Technical Information, “GeoVision: Harnessing the Heat Beneath Our Feet”, June 2019, https://www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/downloads/geovision-harnessing-heat-beneath-our-feet. In general, a power plant's net capacity equals gross capacity less the plant's own power requirements and any seasonal de-rating. In the case of geothermal plants, net capacity also would reflect the effective power capability of the plant as determined by the current steam production of the geothermal field.7
  8. ESDM, “Capaian Kinerja Sektor ESDM Tahun 2023”, 15 January 2024, https://www.esdm.go.id/assets/media/content/content-capaian-kinerja-sektor-esdm-2023-dan-target-2024-.pdf.8
  9. KS Orka Renewables Pte. Ltd., LinkedIn post, 2024, https://www.linkedin.com/posts/ks-orka-renewables_cleanenergy-energy-smgp-activity-7153312665484840960-26sD; KS Orka, “News Stream”, accessed March 2024, https://ksorka-sorikmarapi.com.9
  10. KS Orka Renewables Pte. Ltd., LinkedIn post, 2023, https://www.linkedin.com/posts/ks-orka-renewables_geothermal-ksorka-sgi-activity-7091716917148717056-JmPN.10
  11. Pabumnews.com, “Didongkrak PLTP Binary Salak Jawa Barat, Kapasitas PLTP Indonesia Segera Bertambah Akhir 2023”, 19 October 2023, https://www.panasbuminews.com/didongkrak-pltp-binary-salak-jawa-barat-kapasitas-pltp-indonesia-segera-bertambah-akhir-2023; Muhamad Ghafur Fadillah, “Progres Proyek Salak Binary Star Energy Milik Prajogo Pangestu Capai 95,2%”, 18 October 2023, https://www.beritasatu.com/ekonomi/1072545/progres-proyek-salak-binary-star-energy-milik-prajogo-pangestu-capai-952.11
  12. Mita Amalia Hapsari, “BREN Bakal Ekspansi Panas Bumi ke Luar Jawa”, 26 October 2023, https://www.beritasatu.com/ekonomi/1074051/bren-bakal-ekspansi-panas-bumi-ke-luar-jawa.12
  13. Capacity at year-end 2018-2023 from ESDM, “Capaian Kinerja Sektor ESDM Tahun 2023”, 15 January 2024, https://www.esdm.go.id/assets/media/content/content-capaian-kinerja-sektor-esdm-2023-dan-target-2024-.pdf. 13
  14. ESDM, “Buka IIGCE 2023, Wapres Tekankan Perbaikan Kualitas Data Panas Bumi Untuk Tarik Investor”, 21 September 2023, https://www.esdm.go.id/id/media-center/arsip-berita/buka-iigce-2023-wapres-tekankan-perbaikan-kualitas-data-panas-bumi-untuk-tarik-investor; resource potential from ESDM, “Handbook of Energy & Economic Statistics of Indonesia”, May 2023, https://www.esdm.go.id/assets/media/content/content-handbook-of-energy-and-economic-statistics-of-indonesia-2022.pdf.14
  15. ESDM, “Buka IIGCE 2023, Wapres Tekankan Perbaikan Kualitas Data Panas Bumi Untuk Tarik Investor”, 21 September 2023, https://www.esdm.go.id/id/media-center/arsip-berita/buka-iigce-2023-wapres-tekankan-perbaikan-kualitas-data-panas-bumi-untuk-tarik-investor.15
  16. ESDM, “Buka IIGCE 2023, Wapres Tekankan Perbaikan Kualitas Data Panas Bumi Untuk Tarik Investor”, 21 September 2023, https://www.esdm.go.id/id/media-center/arsip-berita/buka-iigce-2023-wapres-tekankan-perbaikan-kualitas-data-panas-bumi-untuk-tarik-investor. 16
  17. ESDM, “Handbook of Energy & Economic Statistics of Indonesia”, May 2023, https://www.esdm.go.id/assets/media/content/content-handbook-of-energy-and-economic-statistics-of-indonesia-2022.pdf.17
  18. Caroline Chebet, “Sosian Set to Be First IPP to Tap Geothermal and Sell Electricity”, The Standard, 9 June 2023, https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/business/article/2001474768/sosian-set-to-be-first-ipp-to-tap-geothermal-and-sell-electricity.18
  19. Julius Chepkwony, “Sosian Energy to Generate Power from Menengai Geothermal Field”, The Standard, 19 March 2023, https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/business/article/2001469207/sosian-energy-to-generate-power-from-menengai-geothermal-field; Caroline Chebet, “Sosian Set to Be First IPP to Tap Geothermal and Sell Electricity”, The Standard, 9 June 2023, https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/business/article/2001474768/sosian-set-to-be-first-ipp-to-tap-geothermal-and-sell-electricity; John Mutua, “Daniel Arap Moi-linked Sosian Energy Starts Supplying Power to National Grid”, Business Daily, 15 June 2023, https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/corporate/companies/daniel-arap-moi-linked-sosian-energy-starts-supplying-power--4271636; Sosian Energy, “Sosian Menengai Geothermal Power LTD”, 19 August 2022, https://sosianenergy.com/2022/08/19/sosian-menengai-geothermal-power-ltd.19
  20. KenGen, “KenGen Reports Robust Half-Year Performance, Net Revenue Surging 8.4% to Reach 24.7 Billion”, 29 February 2024, https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/information-center/news-and-events.html.20
  21. KenGen, “KenGen Steps Up Geothermal to Curb Suppressed Inflows at the Large Hydropower Dams”, 7 November 2023, https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/information-center/news-and-events.html; Caroline Chebet, “Sosian Set to Be First IPP to Tap Geothermal and Sell Electricity”, The Standard, 9 June 2023, https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/business/article/2001474768/sosian-set-to-be-first-ipp-to-tap-geothermal-and-sell-electricity.21
  22. Energy & Petroleum Regulatory Authority, “Biannual Energy and Petroleum Statistics Report for the Financial Year 2022/2023”, 25 April 2023, https://www.epra.go.ke/biannual-energy-and-petroleum-statistics-report-for-the-financial-year-2022-2023; John Mutua, “Daniel Arap Moi-linked Sosian Energy Starts Supplying Power to National Grid”, Business Daily, 15 June 2023, https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/corporate/companies/daniel-arap-moi-linked-sosian-energy-starts-supplying-power--4271636.22
  23. Ormat Technologies, “North Valley Geothermal Power Plant Is On”, 1 May 2023, https://www.ormat.com/en/company/news/view/?ContentID=9268.23
  24. Net capacity and generation for years 2017, 2022 and 2023 from US Energy Information Administration, “Electric Power Monthly”, February 2019, February 2023, and February 2024, Table 1.1.A and Table 6.2.B, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly.24
  25. Net capacity and generation for years 2017, 2022 and 2023 from US Energy Information Administration, “Electric Power Monthly”, February 2019, February 2023, and February 2024, Table 1.1.A and Table 6.2.B, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly. 25
  26. Nameplate and operating (net summer) capacity from US Energy Information Administration, “Form EIA-860M (Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory)”, December 2023, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/eia860m; US Department of Energy, Office of Scientific and Technical Information, “GeoVision: Harnessing the Heat Beneath Our Feet”, June 2019, https://www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/downloads/geovision-harnessing-heat-beneath-our-feet.26
  27. Generation for 2023 from US Energy Information Administration, “Electric Power Monthly”, February 2024, Tables ES1.B, 1.1 1.1.A, https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly.27
  28. US Department of Energy, Geothermal Technology Office, “Enhanced Geothermal Shot”, accessed April 2024, https://www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/enhanced-geothermal-shot.28
  29. US Department of Energy, Geothermal Technology Office, “Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Next-Generation Geothermal Power”, March 2024, https://liftoff.energy.gov/next-generation-geothermal-power.29
  30. US Department of Energy, Geothermal Technology Office, “Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Next-Generation Geothermal Power”, March 2024, https://liftoff.energy.gov/next-generation-geothermal-power.30
  31. US Department of Energy, Geothermal Technology Office, “Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Next-Generation Geothermal Power”, March 2024, https://liftoff.energy.gov/next-generation-geothermal-power.31
  32. Eavor Technologies, “Success at Eavor's New Mexico Project Triggers Follow-on Strategic Investments”, 31 January 2023, https://www.eavor.com/press-releases/success-at-eavors-new-mexico-project-triggers-follow-on-strategic-investments; Eavor Technologies, “Capital Raise of $182 Million Confirms Eavor as the Leader in Scalable Geothermal”, 25 October 2023, https://www.eavor.com/press-releases/capital-raise-of-182-million-confirms-eavor-as-the-leader-in-scalable-geothermal; Fervo Energy, “Well Test Results at Fervo Energy's Commercial Pilot Project Confirm Record Production of 24/7 Carbon-free Enhanced Geothermal Energy”, 18 July 2023, https://fervoenergy.com/fervo-energy-announces-technology-breakthrough-in-next-generation-geothermal; Fervo Energy, “400 MW Cape Station Project in Southwest Utah Signals a New Era for Enhanced Geothermal Energy”, 25 September 2023, https://fervoenergy.com/fervo-energy-breaks-ground-on-the-worlds-largest-next-gen-geothermal-project; Fervo Energy, “Drilling Operations at Fervo's Cape Station Show 70% Year-over-year Reduction in Drilling Times and Pave the Way for Rapid Geothermal Deployment”, 12 February 2024, https://fervoenergy.com/fervo-energy-drilling-results-show-rapid-advancement-of-geothermal-performance.32
  33. As noted elsewhere in this section, Japan's overall capacity situation is in long-term decline and small unit annual additions do not appear to overcome this trend. Overall capacity probably declined in 2023. See International Renewable Energy Agency, “Renewable Energy Statistics 2024”, 2024, https://prod-cd.irena.org/Publications/2024/Mar/Renewable-capacity-statistics-2024.33
  34. Daisuke Yanai et al., “Replacement of the Onikobe Geothermal Power Station, Japan”, Proceedings of the 49th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 12-14 February 2024, https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/pdf/IGAstandard/SGW/2024/Yanai.pdf.34
  35. Daisuke Yanai et al., “Replacement of the Onikobe Geothermal Power Station, Japan”, Proceedings of the 49th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 12-14 February 2024, https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/pdf/IGAstandard/SGW/2024/Yanai.pdf.35
  36. Daisuke Yanai et al., “Replacement of the Onikobe Geothermal Power Station, Japan”, Proceedings of the 49th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 12-14 February 2024, https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/pdf/IGAstandard/SGW/2024/Yanai.pdf.36
  37. Renova, “Notice of Conclusion of Finance-Related Agreement Concerning Geothermal Power Generation Project Sponsored by RENOVA”, 18 June 2021, https://www.renovainc.com/en/news/business/pdf/e20210618_01_PRESS.pdf; Renova, “Notice of Commencement of Commercial Operation at Minami-Aso Yunotani Geothermal Power Plan”, 3 March 2023, https://www.renovainc.com/en/news/business/pdf/e230303_01_PRESS.pdf; Renova, “Minami-Aso Yunotani Geothermal”, accessed April 2024, https://www.renovainc.com/en/business/power_plant/minamiaso_yunotani_geothermal; Ormat Technologies, “Mori Binary Geothermal Power Plant”, 15 January 2024, https://www.ormat.com/en/company/news/view/?ContentID=9288.37
  38. Ormat Technologies, “Mori Binary Geothermal Power Plant”, 15 January 2024, https://www.ormat.com/en/company/news/view/?ContentID=9288; Climeon, “Case Study: The Sansui Power Plant”, accessed April 2023, https://climeon.com/case-study-the-sansui-power-plant; Baseload Power, “Sansui Geothermal Power Plant Begins Operations in Kumamoto – Renewable Energy Made Possible with Hot Spring Operator Together with Local and Global Partners”, 26 April 2022, https://www.baseloadpower.jp/en/sansui-geothermal-power-plant-begins-operations-in-kumamoto.38
  39. Mitsubishi Materials Corporation, “Started Commercial Operation of the Appi Geothermal Power Plant: Joint Venture Project by Three Companies Following the Wasabizawa Geothermal Power Plant”, 1 March 2024, https://www.mmc.co.jp/corporate/en/news/2024/news20240301.html. 39
  40. Mitsubishi Materials Corporation, “Started Commercial Operation of the Appi Geothermal Power Plant: Joint Venture Project by Three Companies Following the Wasabizawa Geothermal Power Plant”, 1 March 2024, https://www.mmc.co.jp/corporate/en/news/2024/news20240301.html.40
  41. Kasumi Yasukawa, “2022 Japan Country Report”, International Energy Agency Geothermal, March 2023, https://iea-gia.org/about-us/members/japan; Kasumi Yasukawa et al., “Country Update Japan”, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2023, Beijing, China, 17-21 April 2023, https://www.lovegeothermal.org/explore/our-databases/conference-paper-database.41
  42. Kasumi Yasukawa, “2022 Japan Country Report”, International Energy Agency Geothermal, March 2023, https://iea-gia.org/about-us/members/japan; International Renewable Energy Agency, “Renewable Energy Statistics 2024”, 2024, https://prod-cd.irena.org/Publications/2024/Mar/Renewable-capacity-statistics-2024.42
  43. Kasumi Yasukawa, “2022 Japan Country Report”, International Energy Agency Geothermal, March 2023, https://iea-gia.org/about-us/members/japan/.43
  44. Kasumi Yasukawa, “2022 Japan Country Report”, International Energy Agency Geothermal, March 2023, https://iea-gia.org/about-us/members/japan/.44
  45. Ormat Technologies, “Sihuangziping Geothermal Power Plant”, 26 December 2023, https://www.ormat.com/en/company/news/view/?ContentID=9287; “First Volcano-powered Plant to Open”, Taipei Times, 7 October 2023, https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2023/10/07/2003807342; Focus Taiwan (CNA English News), “Geothermal Power Plant Inaugurated in Yilan”, 24 October 2023, https://focustaiwan.tw/politics/202310240017; Sean Scanlan, “New Geothermal Plant Opens in Northern Taiwan”, Taiwan News, 24 October 2023, https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/news/5026389. 45
  46. Taiwan Bureau of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs, “Energy Statistics Handbook 2022”, https://www.moeaea.gov.tw. 46
  47. A.D. Fronda et al., “Geothermal Energy Development: The Philippines Country Update”, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org; Republic of the Philippines, Department of Energy, “List of Existing Power Plants (Grid-connected) as of 31 December 2023”, 2023, https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/04_Grid-LVM_apr_05_2024.pdf.47
  48. Figure of 1.7 GW of dependable capacity from Republic of the Philippines, Department of Energy, “List of Existing Power Plants (Grid-connected) as of 31 December 2023”, 2023, https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/04_Grid-LVM_apr_05_2024.pdf; registered capacity of 1.7 GW and available capacity of 1.1 MW in December 2023 from Independent Electricity Market Operator (IEMOP), “Philippine Electric Power Industry Assessment 2023”, 6 April 2024, Table 1, p. 13, https://www.iemop.ph/home-media/publications.48
  49. Republic of the Philippines, Department of Energy, “List of Existing Power Plants (Grid-connected) as of December 31, 2022”, 2022, https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/04_LVM%20Grid%20Summary.pdf; Republic of the Philippines, Department of Energy, “List of Existing Power Plants (Grid-connected) as of 31 December 2023”, 2023, hhttps://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/04_Grid-LVM_apr_05_2024.pdf.49
  50. Alena Mae S. Flores, “DOE Expects 2 New Geothermal Plants to Start Operations Soon”, Manila Standard, 5 November 2023, https://manilastandard.net/business/power-technology/314386952/doe-expects-2-new-geothermal-plants-to-start-operations-soon.html; Lenie Lectura, “DOE Exhorts Local Energy Firms to Bet on Geothermal”, Business Mirror, 29 September 2023, https://businessmirror.com.ph/2023/09/29/doe-exhorts-local-energy-firms-to-bet-on-geothermal; Richmond Mercurio, “Philippines Aims to Reclaim Spot as 2nd Biggest Geothermal Producer”, The Philippine Star, 29 September 2023, https://www.philstar.com/business/2023/09/29/2299750/philippines-aims-reclaim-spot-2nd-biggest-geothermal-producer.50
  51. A.D. Fronda et al., “Geothermal Energy Development: The Philippines Country Update”, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org; Republic of the Philippines, Department of Energy, “List of Existing Power Plants (Grid-connected) as of December 31, 2022”, 2022, https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/04_LVM%20Grid%20Summary.pdf; Republic of the Philippines, Department of Energy, “List of Existing Power Plants (Grid-connected) as of 31 December 2023”, 2023, hhttps://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/04_Grid-LVM_apr_05_2024.pdf. 51
  52. Alena Mae S. Flores, “AboitizPower Bullish on 2024 Prospects as New Plants Go Online”, Manila Standard, 4 January 2024, https://manilastandard.net/?p=314404613; Alena Mae S. Flores, “DOE Expects 2 New Geothermal Plants to Start Operations Soon”, Manila Standard, 5 November 2023, https://manilastandard.net/business/power-technology/314386952/doe-expects-2-new-geothermal-plants-to-start-operations-soon.html; Lenie Lectura, “DOE Exhorts Local Energy Firms to Bet on Geothermal”, Business Mirror, 29 September 2023, https://businessmirror.com.ph/2023/09/29/doe-exhorts-local-energy-firms-to-bet-on-geothermal; Jonathan L. Mayuga, “Nickel Asia Profit Nosedives on Drop in 2023 Nickel Prices”, Business Mirror, 14 March 2024, https://businessmirror.com.ph/2024/03/14/nickel-asia-profit-nosedives-on-drop-in-2023-nickel-prices; Jordeene B. Lagare, “Nickel Asia Builds Geothermal Plants in Biliran and Mindoro”, Philippine Daily Inquirer, 11 August 2023, https://business.inquirer.net/415251/nickel-asia-builds-geothermal-plants-in-biliran-and-mindoro.52
  53. Alena Mae S. Flores, “DOE Expects 2 New Geothermal Plants to Start Operations Soon”, Manila Standard, 5 November 2023, https://manilastandard.net/business/power-technology/314386952/doe-expects-2-new-geothermal-plants-to-start-operations-soon.html; Lenie Lectura, “DOE Exhorts Local Energy Firms to Bet on Geothermal”, Business Mirror, 29 September 2023, https://businessmirror.com.ph/2023/09/29/doe-exhorts-local-energy-firms-to-bet-on-geothermal.53
  54. Toshiba, “Largest Geothermal Energy Producer in the Philippines Orders Geoportable Geothermal Power Generation System”, 4 October 2022, https://www.global.toshiba/ww/news/energy/2022/10/news-20221004-01.html; Lenie Lectura, “DOE Exhorts Local Energy Firms to Bet on Geothermal”, Business Mirror, 29 September 2023, https://businessmirror.com.ph/2023/09/29/doe-exhorts-local-energy-firms-to-bet-on-geothermal.54
  55. Independent Electricity Market Operator (IEMOP), “Philippine Electric Power Industry Assessment 2023”, 6 April 2024, https://www.iemop.ph/home-media/publications.55
  56. Independent Electricity Market Operator (IEMOP), “Philippine Electric Power Industry Assessment 2023”, 6 April 2024, https://www.iemop.ph/home-media/publications.56
  57. Independent Electricity Market Operator (IEMOP), “Philippine Electric Power Industry Assessment 2023”, 6 April 2024, https://www.iemop.ph/home-media/publications.57
  58. Independent Electricity Market Operator (IEMOP), “Philippine Electric Power Industry Assessment 2023”, 6 April 2024, Figure 42, p. 54, https://www.iemop.ph/home-media/publications.58
  59. Turkish Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA/EPDK), “Electricity Market Sector Report”, accessed April 2024, http://www.emra.org.tr; Turkish Electricity Transmission Company (TEİAŞ), accessed April 2024, http://www.teias.gov.tr.59
  60. Turkish Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA/EPDK), “Electricity Market Sector Report”, accessed April 2024, http://www.emra.org.tr; Turkish Electricity Transmission Company (TEİAŞ), accessed April 2024, http://www.teias.gov.tr.60
  61. Turkish Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA/EPDK), “Electricity Market Sector Report”, accessed April 2024, http://www.emra.org.tr; Turkish Electricity Transmission Company (TEİAŞ), accessed April 2024, http://www.teias.gov.tr.61
  62. Leman Çetiner, “Türkiye Jeotermal Kaynaklarinin Önemi”, presentation, Turkey Geothermal Conference 2024, 20-21 February 2024, https://geothermalturkey.org/sunumlar.62
  63. Energy Exchange Istanbul – Enerji Piyasaları İşletme A.Ş. (EPİAŞ), “01.07.2021 Tarihinden 31.12.2030 Tarihine Kadar İşletmeye Girecek YEK Belgeli Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarına Dayalı Elektrik Üretim Tesisleri İçin Uygulanacak Fiyatlar Hk”, 3 November 2023, https://www.epias.com.tr/tum-duyurular/piyasa-duyurulari/elektrik/kayit-ve-uzlastirma/01-07-2021-tarihinden-31-12-2030-tarihine-kadar-isletmeye-girecek-yek-belgeli-yenilenebilir-enerji-kaynaklarina-dayali-elektrik-uretim-tesisleri-icin-uygulanacak-fiyatlar-hk-5; Gökçe Topbaş, “JESDER Başkanı Şentürk: YEKDEM ile jeotermal enerji sektöründe büyümenin önü açıldı”, Anadolu Ajansi, 2 February 2024, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ekonomi/jesder-baskani-senturk-yekdem-ile-jeotermal-enerji-sektorunde-buyumenin-onu-acildi/3143806.63
  64. Gülşen Çağatay, “YEKDEM düzenlemesi jeotermalde keşfi tamamlanmamış kaynakların devreye alınmasında ‘itici güç' olacak”, 24 May 2023, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ekonomi/yekdem-duzenlemesi-jeotermalde-kesfi-tamamlanmamis-kaynaklarin-devreye-alinmasinda-itici-guc-olacak/2904545.64
  65. Turkish Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA/EPDK), “Electricity Market Sector Report”, accessed April 2024, http://www.emra.org.tr.65
  66. Calculation based on estimates for each of the four largest markets noted elsewhere in this section and a nominal 1% annual growth for all other markets since 2019. Output in 2019 based on J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf.66
  67. Calculation based on estimates for each of the four largest markets noted elsewhere in this section and a nominal 1% annual growth for all other markets since 2019. Output in 2019 based on J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf. The four largest markets comprising 85% of output in 2023 derived from estimates for these markets and assumed 1% annual growth for the rest of the world since 2019.67
  68. Figure 21 based on: Calculation based on estimates for each of the four largest markets noted elsewhere in this section and a nominal 1% annual growth for all other markets since 2019. Output in 2019 based on J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf. The four largest markets comprising 85% of output in 2023 derived from estimates for these markets and assumed 1% annual growth for the rest of the world since 2019.68
  69. Distribution and calculation of share based on J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf.69
  70. Projection based on historical data from T. Tian et al., “Rapid Development of China's Geothermal Industry – China National Report of the 2020 World Geothermal Conference”, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020, 2020, http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01068.pdf.70
  71. China National Energy Administration, “Central Enterprises Are Taking Action to Keep Warm and Ensure Supply”, 5 January 2024, https://www.nea.gov.cn/2024-01/05/c_1310758888.htm (using Google Translate).71
  72. Assumption of 22 kilograms of coal per square metre from Zuoxian Luo and Xuemei Lu, “Characteristics and Prospect of Geothermal Industry in China Under the ‘Dual Carbon' Target”, Energy Geosciences, 4 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engeos.2023.100199. For the purpose of energy conversion, calculation is based on the caloric value of “standard coal” (7 million kcal/tonne or 29.3 MJ/kg) as assumed for the stated average thermal demand (22 kg/m2). In the context of actual coal used, this appears too high for the Chinese context as the observed average thermal coal values of coal used in China in 2005 was 21.71 MJ/kg (from Zhu Song-Li, “Comparison and Analysis of CO2 Emissions Data for China”, Advances in Climate Change Research 5, no. 1 (2014), https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1248.2014.017). Calculation: ((95 million m2)/0.15 + 95) X (22 kg coal/m2) X (29.27 MJ/kg coal) = 469 PJ.72
  73. Value for 2019 from J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf, and from T. Tian et al., “Rapid Development of China's Geothermal Industry – China National Report of the 2020 World Geothermal Conference”, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020, 2020, http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01068.pdf.73
  74. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, “‘14th Five-Year' Building Energy Efficiency and Green Building Development Plan”, 11 March 2022, https://www.mohurd.gov.cn/gongkai/fdzdgknr/zfhcxjsbwj/202203/20220311_765109.html.74
  75. O. Mertoglu, “Geothermal Energy Use: Projections and Country Update for Turkey”, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020, 2020, http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01049.pdf; projection based on J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf.75
  76. O. Mertoglu et al., “Geothermal Energy Use, Country Update for Türkiye – 2022”, European Geothermal Congress 2022, Berlin, 17-21 October 2022, https://www.europeangeothermalcongress.eu. This value is based on total direct use capacity of 5,323.15 MW less 112.3 MW of ground-source heat pump capacity. The source is unclear on the year for which these values apply.76
  77. Calculated by simple ratio of energy use to capacity (non-differentiated by use) and the resulting three-year compound annual growth rate of 14.4% for 2019-2022 to extrapolate for 2023 estimate.77
  78. J.W. Lund and A.N. Toth, “Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review”, 2020, https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf.78
  79. Orkustofnun Data Repository, “OS-2023-T008-01: Final Heat Use in Iceland 2022 by District Heating Area”, 30 November 2023, https://orkustofnun.is/upplysingar/talnaefni/varmi; Á. Ragnarsson, B. Steingrímsson and S. Thorhallsson, “Geothermal Energy Use, Country Update for Iceland”, European Geothermal Congress 2022, Berlin, 17-21 October 2022, https://www.europeangeothermalcongress.eu. 79
  80. Orkustofnun Data Repository, “OS-2023-T008-01: Final Heat Use in Iceland 2022 by District Heating Area”, 30 November 2023, https://orkustofnun.is/upplysingar/talnaefni/varmi.80
  81. Orkustofnun Data Repository, “OS-2023-T008-01: Final Heat Use in Iceland 2022 by District Heating Area”, 30 November 2023, https://orkustofnun.is/upplysingar/talnaefni/varmi.81
  82. Orkustofnun Data Repository, “OS-2023-T008-01: Final Heat Use in Iceland 2022 by District Heating Area”, 30 November 2023, https://orkustofnun.is/upplysingar/talnaefni/varmi.82
  83. Kasumi Yasukawa, “2022 Japan Country Report”, March 2023, International Energy Agency Geothermal, https://iea-gia.org/about-us/members/japan.83
  84. Kasumi Yasukawa, “2022 Japan Country Report”, March 2023, International Energy Agency Geothermal, https://iea-gia.org/about-us/members/japan.84
  85. See previous versions of REN21, "Renewables Global Status Report".85
  86. European Geothermal Energy Council, “EGEC Geothermal Market Report – Key Findings”, 12th Edition, July 2023, https://www.egec.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/EGEC-Market-Report-2022_Key-Findings.pdf.86
  87. Bundesverband Geothermie, “Tiefe Geothermieprojekte in Deutschland”, March 2024, https://www.geothermie.de/aktuelles/geothermie-in-zahlen. 87
  88. Federal Environment Agency (Umwelt Bundesamt), “Erneuerbare Energien in Deutschland Daten zur Entwicklung im Jahr 2023”, March 2024, https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/479/publikationen/2024_uba_hg_erneuerbareenergien_dt.pdf.88
  89. Bundesverband Geothermie, “Tiefe Geothermieprojekte in Deutschland”, March 2024, https://www.geothermie.de/aktuelles/geothermie-in-zahlen.89
  90. Bundesverband Geothermie, “Tiefe Geothermieprojekte in Deutschland”, March 2024, https://www.geothermie.de/aktuelles/geothermie-in-zahlen; Norddeutscher Rundfunk, “Geothermie: Schwerin heizt jetzt mit Erdwärme”, 28 April 2023, https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/mecklenburg-vorpommern/Geothermie-Schwerin-heizt-jetzt-mit-Erdwaerme,geothermie246.html.90
  91. Norddeutscher Rundfunk, “Geothermie: Schwerin heizt jetzt mit Erdwärme”, 28 April 2023, https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/mecklenburg-vorpommern/Geothermie-Schwerin-heizt-jetzt-mit-Erdwaerme,geothermie246.html; Landeshaupstadt Schwerin, “Geothermie in Schwerin – ein Meilenstein in der Wärmewende: Deutschlandweit erste mitteltiefe Geothermie-Anlage mit Wärmepumpen geht in Betrieb”, 28 April 2023, https://www.schwerin.de/news/geothermie-geht-in-betrieb/. 91
  92. Norddeutscher Rundfunk, “Geothermie: Schwerin heizt jetzt mit Erdwärme”, 28 April 2023, https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/mecklenburg-vorpommern/Geothermie-Schwerin-heizt-jetzt-mit-Erdwaerme,geothermie246.html.92
  93. Values for 2023 from Geothermie Nederland, “Productiecijfers: Meer warmte uit eigen bodem is crucial”, 26 February 2024, https://geothermie.nl/actueel/nieuws/meer-warmte-uit-eigen-bodem-is-cruciaal; growth percentage for 2022 from Geothermie Nederland, “Productiecijfers aardwarmte 2022 opnieuw gestegen, maar groei blijft achter”, 23 February 2023, https://geothermie.nl/actueel/nieuws/productiecijfers-aardwarmte-2022-opnieuw-gestegen-maar-groei-blijft-achter; number of projects and capacity in 2022 from M. Provoost and F. Agterberg, “Geothermal Energy Use, Country Update for The Netherlands”, European Geothermal Congress 2022, Berlin, 17-21 October 2022, https://www.europeangeothermalcongress.eu. 93
  94. Geothermie Nederland, “Productiecijfers: Meer warmte uit eigen bodem is crucial”, 26 February 2024, https://geothermie.nl/actueel/nieuws/meer-warmte-uit-eigen-bodem-is-cruciaal; Geothermie Nederland, “Productiecijfers Aardwarmte 2023”, 2023, https://geothermie.nl/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Infographic-Geothermie-cijfers-2023.pdf.94
  95. Geothermie Nederland, “Productiecijfers Aardwarmte 2023”, 2023, https://geothermie.nl/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Infographic-Geothermie-cijfers-2023.pdf; Geothermie Nederland, “Warmte uit eigen bodem”, 2024, https://geothermie.nl/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Geothermie_Infographic2_WarmteUitEigenBodem.pdf. 95
  96. V. Schmidlé-Bloch et al., “Geothermal Energy Use, Country Update for France”, European Geothermal Congress 2022, Berlin, 17-21 October 2022, https://www.europeangeothermalcongress.eu.96
  97. Engie Solutions, “Mise en service de la géothermie dans le quartier Pleyel à Saint-Denis”, 19 December 2023, https://www.engie-solutions.com/fr/presse/geothermie-pleyel; Engie Solutions, “Chaleur et fraicheur pour le quartier Pleyel dès 2023 !” 24 June 2022, https://www.engie-solutions.com/fr/presse/pleyel-2022; SMIREC (Syndicat mixte pour la géothermie à La Courneuve), “Mise en service de la géothermie dans le quartier Pleyel à Saint-Denis: 68 % d'énergie renouvelable pour les 600 000 m 2 de bâtiments raccordés au réseau du SMIREC, dont le Village des Athlètes”, 22 December 2023, https://presse.ademe.fr/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/2023-12-01-cp-inauguration-pleyel.pdf; Engie Solutions, “Geothermal Energy: The Drilling Operation to Supply the Future Pleyel District with Renewable Energy Has Been Successfully Completed!” 29 September 2021, https://www.engie-solutions.com/sites/default/files/assets/2021-09/2021.09.29%20CP%20Fin%20du%20forage%20g%C3%A9othermie%20Pleyel_fren-uk.pdf. 97
  98. SMIREC (Syndicat mixte pour la géothermie à La Courneuve), “Plaquette Projet Pleyel”, viewed April 2024, https://www.smirec.fr/assets/files/Autre/Plaquette%20Projet%20Pleyel%20.pdf. 98